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...vities). There is no doubt, however, that much of this discussion will be aboutsagriculture which is the primary livelihood activity on which the majority of rural householdssdepend (IFAD 2010; World =-=Bank 2008-=-; Dechenne 2008). This paper focuses on ODA that isspart of ‘normal’ planned programming and excludes emergency aid. Emergency aid is onlysdiscussed in contexts where this enhances our understanding o...

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...standing aid for rural livelihoodssThe term ‘rural livelihoods’ refers to the ways in which people who spend most or all of theirslives in rural areas of the global south make a living (Francis 2002; =-=Ellis 2000-=-; Ellis andsFreeman 2005). For many countries in the global south this discourse is mainly aboutssmallholder farming––including livestock production; fisheries; forestry. It is also often aboutswage l...

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...that a shift in attitude towards spending on ARD was helped by thesemergence of the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Framework (SRLF) as a more coherent waysto package interventions in ARD (Carney 1998; =-=Scoones 1998-=-; Elis 2000). This wassespecially so within donor agencies like the UK’s DfID where the emergence of SRLF helpedsto provide a way to package and promote the ARD agenda (Solesbury 2003; Scoones 2009).s...

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...licated outside thesexperimental projects. It could therefore be said that results of major commitments raisedsconcerns for donors who responded by shifting focus to the non-productive sectors (Worlds=-=Bank 2002-=-).sWashington Consensus on agriculture and commodity pricessFrom the mid-1980s general concerns about structural problems in agriculture blamed onsstate control and regulation of agricultural markets ...

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...at often come with few questions (Wu 2012). Althoughssome of the aid funding in ARD from non-DAC countries has been linked to controversialsland investments in developing countries (see Carmody 2011; =-=Deininger and Byerlee 2011-=-) itsis clear that their emergence and expanding role will change the aid landscape especially ifsthey continue to operate outside of the DAC frameworks.sIn summary, emergence of private sector financ...

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...8; Scoones 1998; Elis 2000). This wassespecially so within donor agencies like the UK’s DfID where the emergence of SRLF helpedsto provide a way to package and promote the ARD agenda (Solesbury 2003; =-=Scoones 2009-=-).sRenewed interest however did not immediately translate into increased support for ARD. Insfact OECD data suggest that by 2002 multilateral donors committed only 15 per cent of whatsthey had been gi...

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... ARD (Carney 1998; Scoones 1998; Elis 2000). This wassespecially so within donor agencies like the UK’s DfID where the emergence of SRLF helpedsto provide a way to package and promote the ARD agenda (=-=Solesbury 2003-=-; Scoones 2009).sRenewed interest however did not immediately translate into increased support for ARD. Insfact OECD data suggest that by 2002 multilateral donors committed only 15 per cent of whatsth...

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...later point has been significantsespecially since the 1990s when the downsizing of agricultural reforms done as part ofseconomic reforms resulted in a decline in state capacity to interface with ODA (=-=Eicher 2003-=-).sThe implication of these two points on agriculture and rural development aid data is thatsmuch of what can be said about quantities, flows and trends remains only indicative. In thesnext section we...

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... the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s has been attributed to asvariety of factors that include poor policies, especially over centralized institutions (Andersonsand Masters 2008) and anti-agriculture policies (=-=Kherallah et al. 2000-=-). Table 2 presents assummary of some studies on agricultural productivity growth in SSA. Although the resultsspaint a variable picture depending on methods and data used, a general picture emerges th...

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... committing nearlysUS$19 billion to ARD, a comprehensive review of programmes between 1965 and 1986snoted that ‘although lending targets were met, half the audited programmes in Africa failed’s(World =-=Bank 1988-=-). Similarly commenting on investments in integrated rural developmentsprojects (IRD), Binswanger (1998) notes that many had failed due to a number of factors thatsincluded a lack of core common activ...

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...Sample of studies on agricultural productivity growth in sub-Saharan AfricasStudy Year ResultssBlock 1995 Poor results for productivity growth in the 1970s followed by growth of 1.6%sbetween 1983-88.s=-=Lusigi and Thirtle 1997-=- A study of 47 African countries found that agricultural productivity grew by an average of 1.27% per year between 1967-91.sTrueblood and Cogginss2003 Regional aggregate agricultural productivity in A...

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...th (e-Agriculture 2013). Outcomes of the PPPs insagriculture are only beginning to emerge but there is evidence of a capacity gap to negotiatesand implement such deals especially in the global south (=-=Hartwich et al. 2007-=-). This cansundermine the efficiency gains envisaged in PPPs and compromise the public interestsdimension of such deals. The next section looks at venture philanthropy and high-impactsinvestments as a...

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...ity programming.sThe rise and increase of emergency food aid as an area of aid commitment can be explainedsby an exponential rise in the number of complex emergencies requiring this type of responses(=-=Harvey et al. 2010-=-) although it has also been attributed in part to a desire by donor countriessto offload surplus production (World Bank 2008). What is clear, however, is that thesemergence of new areas requiring urge...

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...as undermining efforts to reduce loss of natural habitats. Specifically, there wassreduced interest in large-scale agricultural projects in preference for small-scale communitysmanaged systems (World =-=Bank 2004-=-). Apart from negative environmental effects, large-scalesprojects were also seen as having too many negative social impacts especially displacementsof the very people supposed to benefit from the pro...

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... implementedsduring the late 1980s and early 1990s in many African countries (World Bank 2008).sTable 2: Sample of studies on agricultural productivity growth in sub-Saharan AfricasStudy Year Resultss=-=Block 1995-=- Poor results for productivity growth in the 1970s followed by growth of 1.6%sbetween 1983-88.sLusigi and Thirtle 1997 A study of 47 African countries found that agricultural productivity grew by an a...

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...ure.s1.1 Understanding aid for rural livelihoodssThe term ‘rural livelihoods’ refers to the ways in which people who spend most or all of theirslives in rural areas of the global south make a living (=-=Francis 2002-=-; Ellis 2000; Ellis andsFreeman 2005). For many countries in the global south this discourse is mainly aboutssmallholder farming––including livestock production; fisheries; forestry. It is also often ...

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...presented as a win-win arrangement in which the private companies bring thestechnological innovations to bear on development problems with the hope of making modestsprofits, some (see Morvaridi 2012; =-=Scoones and Thomson 2011-=-) raise concerns about theslong-term sustainability and social implications of such funding arrangements for publicsgoods. In particular, PPP are seen as working only in areas where private companies ...

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...rld Bank 2008). Many developingscountries undertook agriculture sector reforms that while successful in liberalizing marketssalso undermined state capacity to partner donors in implementing projects (=-=Wiggins 2005-=-).sWanzala (2010) in a review of NEPAD’s Comprehensive Africa Agricultural DevelopmentsProgramme (CAADP) identifies reduced state capacity’s ability to absorb aid as one of theskey areas for action. T...

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... bifurcates between those who see ‘needs determined’ response (espoused in thesParis Declaration on Aid) on one hand and those who see donor’s strategic interests andsmiddle-income bias on the other (=-=Harrigan and Wang 2011-=-). On balance the reality is thatswhile strategic interests may eventually prevail, for collective entities like the DAC,sconsiderations of need still play a prominent role.sTable 1: Top ten recipient...

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... overall ODA. The establishment of the International Financing Facility (IFF) as13snew blend of ODA leveraged by private capital markets after the Gleneagles summit createdsnew funding opportunities (=-=Addison and Mavrotas 2008-=-). By 2011 some US$6.3 billion insdonor pledges had been leveraged to raise US$3.7 billion on the world’s capital markets forsimmunization projects. Although the IFF did not really take off in areas o...

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...shift in focus by traditional donorssaway from large infrastructure projects. It is estimated that between 2001 and 2009 Chinascommitted US$14 billion to finance infrastructure development in Africa (=-=Chen 2010-=-: 14).sNearly 8 per cent of total ODA to Kenya now comes from China (Fengler and Kharas 2010)swhile in Pakistan non-traditional donors (Saudi Arabia, China Kuwait and Oman) provide upsto 12 per cent o...

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...e thissis often presented as a win-win arrangement in which the private companies bring thestechnological innovations to bear on development problems with the hope of making modestsprofits, some (see =-=Morvaridi 2012-=-; Scoones and Thomson 2011) raise concerns about theslong-term sustainability and social implications of such funding arrangements for publicsgoods. In particular, PPP are seen as working only in area...

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...how that in the 1970s and 1980ssinfrastructure and water resources, which now account for just 10 per cent, attracted most ofs5sthe funding and accounted for up to 39 per cent of the ARD commitments (=-=Islam 2011-=-). Thissshift can be explained in part by a decline in popularity of large-scale water reservoirs andsirrigation projects over time (Eicher 2003). Apart from perceptions of the negativesenvironmental ...

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...aking a living in rural areas (IFAD 2010:46). Thissis particularly so for sub-Saharan Africa and Asia where up to 60 and 55 per cent of thesrespective population are still classified as mainly rural (=-=UNDESA 2012-=-: 11). Moressignificantly many of these live in poverty. A majority (70-75 per cent) of the 1.4 billion poorspeople living on less than US$1.25 per day are mainly based in rural areas of the lesssdeve...

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...ional donors finance aid for ARD. In particularsthere are questions whether this is a ‘social bubble’ that could burst exposing many in thesglobal south to the hazards of venture capital finance (see =-=Bank 2012-=-).sAccountability and governance of the global impact finance industrysAlthough ARD attracts less than 10 per cent of the funds committed so far by privatesfoundations and venture capital finance, the...

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...ere is no doubt, however, that much of this discussion will be aboutsagriculture which is the primary livelihood activity on which the majority of rural householdssdepend (IFAD 2010; World Bank 2008; =-=Dechenne 2008-=-). This paper focuses on ODA that isspart of ‘normal’ planned programming and excludes emergency aid. Emergency aid is onlysdiscussed in contexts where this enhances our understanding of current fundi...

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...ed foundationsadmitted to the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) hassbecome a significant player in supporting research and development focusing on smallholdersfarmers (=-=Ferroni and Castle 2011-=-).sAs independent players often are not hamstrung by bureaucracy and funding programmesstimed to political calendars, private philanthropic foundations have shown an ability to takesrisk-embracing inn...

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...smoney, not all commitments are met. In fact analysis shows that for a variety of reasons moresthan a quarter (26 per cent) of all aid commitments made to ARD between 2002 and 2009swere not expended (=-=GDPRD 2011-=-: 29). This was primarily projects getting timed out ofsfunding cycles due to delays in project development. The later point has been significantsespecially since the 1990s when the downsizing of agri...

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... investments worth US$4.4 billionswere made in areas as diverse as microfinance, consumer internet and mobile technologies,sglobal entrepreneurship, government transparency and property rights (J. P. =-=Morgan 2011-=-).sThis was nearly double the 1000 high-impact investments worth US$42.5 billion made ins2010. Examples of venture capital funds include Acumen Fund (brainchild of the RockefellersFoundation), Grassro...

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...frica. If we consider agriculture a sector receiving the bulk ofsARD commitments at the time, there certainly was a ‘productivity blast-off’ in Asia wherescereal yields doubled between 1965 and 1982 (=-=Hazel 2009-=-: 8). SSA made only modest gainssat best. A look at the productivity trends of corn, a staple food crop in parts of SSA, suggestssmodest rates of growth with a significant decline in the early 1980s a...

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... attention on how much rich nations gave to poor countries. It issdebatable whether the pressure brought to bear on the G8 leaders by civil society groups atsthe 2005 Gleneagles Summit played a part (=-=Richey and Ponte 2008-=-). Certainly the outcome–– a pledge to increase aid commitment to 0.7 per cent of national income––made a difference insmaking more resources available, although the share of this ‘new’ money that wen...

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...nt tosoffer alternative financing for southern partners––some of which has gone into ARD projects.sIn fact, of the US$362 million committed to Africa by the BRICS, about 26 per cent wassspent on ARD (=-=Shankland et al. 2012-=-).sSimilarly, rising power China is becoming a significant player in ARD projects especially insrural infrastructure where it has filled the void left by a shift in focus by traditional donorssaway fr...

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... and deriving from among the BRICS countries, oil rich Arab nationssand private foundations. Aid from non-DAC countries more than doubled between 2005 ands2009, rising from US$4.6 billion to US$10.4 (=-=Smith 2011-=-: 3). Incomplete data reporting forsnon-DAC countries makes it difficult to look more closely at commitments. Some of thesbilateral aid is classified as either development cooperation or as partnershi...

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...was also growing evidence (based on forecasts) suggesting that focus needed to shift towardssurban programming in the large cities where poverty was growing and the risk of instabilityswas also high (=-=UN-Habitat 1995-=-). In particular, fears of the growing urbanization of povertysand social unrest saw renewed efforts to support social sectors rather than the rural productivessector.s3.2 Demand-side factorssWhile in...

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...tend to have a singular focus on agriculture while the DAC-donors,sespecially in Europe, subscribe to a broader rural development concept in which agriculture issbut one of the livelihood activities (=-=Wobst 2011-=-). Similarly, should the focus on enhancingsagricultural incomes be on the small farms or large farms or even a mixture of both? Thesesare issues of strategy that Global Donor Platform on Aid for Rura...