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...erson et al. 9 identify mechanisms and processes of initial transfer of policy ideas or whoscarries them. Social network analysis arose in Sociology (e.g., Boissevain & Mitchell,s1973; Coleman, 1958; =-=Scott, 1991-=-; Wasserman & Faust, 1997; Wellman,s1983) but has recently emerged as a crucial methodology in political science as well (e.g., Bach & Newman, 2010; Cao, 2009, 2010; HafnerBurton, Kahler, & Montgomery...

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...ntion to transnational actors—thoseswho may interact with governments, but who are not necessarily governmentsactors themselves. While transnational networks such as epistemic communities of experts (=-=Haas, 1992-=-) are not completely ignored in diffusion studies,sthe more common focus is on transgovernmental networks (Slaughter, 2004).sWe argue that it is important to start from the network rather than the pol...

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...themselves. While transnational networks such as epistemic communities of experts (Haas, 1992) are not completely ignored in diffusion studies,sthe more common focus is on transgovernmental networks (=-=Slaughter, 2004-=-).sWe argue that it is important to start from the network rather than the politiessat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 16, 2016cps.sagepub.comDownloaded froms6 Comparative Political Studies XX(X) under...

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...loaded fromsPaterson et al. 9 identify mechanisms and processes of initial transfer of policy ideas or whoscarries them. Social network analysis arose in Sociology (e.g., Boissevain & Mitchell,s1973; =-=Coleman, 1958-=-; Scott, 1991; Wasserman & Faust, 1997; Wellman,s1983) but has recently emerged as a crucial methodology in political science as well (e.g., Bach & Newman, 2010; Cao, 2009, 2010; HafnerBurton, Kahler,...

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...get emulated or reproduced insother similar units, or how an idea promoted internationally—say through astreaty or an international institution—becomes state policy (Cao, 2009, 2010;sFinnemore, 1996; =-=Finnemore & Sikkink, 1998-=-; Füglister, 2011). It alsosfocuses almost exclusively on government actors as sources and targets. Itseven treats “go-between” actors as important almost exclusively in the context of their relations...

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...r case, commonsparticipation in ET venues). The foundational assumption of this kind ofsrelational analysis is that the “regular network patterns beneath the oftenscomplex surface of social systems” (=-=Wellman, 1983-=-, p. 157) are importantsfor understanding and explaining social and political dynamics. Networksanalysis seeks to “describe these patterns and use their descriptions toslearn how network structures co...

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...al jurisdictions get emulated or reproduced insother similar units, or how an idea promoted internationally—say through astreaty or an international institution—becomes state policy (Cao, 2009, 2010;s=-=Finnemore, 1996-=-; Finnemore & Sikkink, 1998; Füglister, 2011). It alsosfocuses almost exclusively on government actors as sources and targets. Itseven treats “go-between” actors as important almost exclusively in the...

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... scholarly literature, including polycentric (Ostrom, 2010a, 2010b), complex sovereignty (Grande & Pauly,s2005), and regime (and transnational regime) complexes (Abbott, 2012;sKeohane & Victor, 2011; =-=Raustiala & Victor, 2004-=-). In this article, we use thesterm polycentric to describe the governance system in the ET policy domainsto highlight that it involves multiple and relatively independent sites of decision making ope...

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...y of north–south bargains in particular—were disseminated throughsthis network. The embedding of this “common sense” can also be understoodsin relation to broader norms of “liberal environmentalism” (=-=Bernstein, 2001-=-),swhere market mechanisms became understood as consistent with broaderspolitical-economic norms from the 1980s onward, as well as connected to thesway that financial actors saw direct economic benefi...

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...l. 3 and the creation of a “global” market. At this same time, the broader institutional context of climate governance became unstable and fragmenteds(Abbott, 2012; Biermann, Pattberg, & Zelli, 2010; =-=Keohane & Victor, 2011-=-),smultiple actors (e.g., firms, states, regions, subnational political units) camesto see responding to climate change as within their authority, and adopted ETsas a policy tool to achieve their own ...

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...s,” proposed an international system of “tradable permits”sat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 16, 2016cps.sagepub.comDownloaded froms14 Comparative Political Studies XX(X) and gained wide circulation (=-=Grubb, 1989-=-). Like the Project 88 proposal forsinternational ET, it outlined in considerable detail why, in Grubb’s view, itswould be preferable to pursue an international agreement based on ET thanson other des...

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...or institutional forms in different jurisdictions (e.g., Buschs& Jörgens, 2005; Graham, Shipan, & Volden, 2012; Holzinger, Knill, &sSommerer, 2008; Meseguer & Gilardi, 2009; Ovodenko & Keohane, 2012;s=-=Simmons, Dobbins, & Garrett, 2008-=-). Explanations generally fall into fourscategories: coercion (by powerful states), competition (e.g., for investment orsother economic advantage), learning and emulation (e.g., based on policyseffect...

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...n how or why they select similarspolicy instruments or institutional forms in different jurisdictions (e.g., Buschs& Jörgens, 2005; Graham, Shipan, & Volden, 2012; Holzinger, Knill, &sSommerer, 2008; =-=Meseguer & Gilardi, 2009-=-; Ovodenko & Keohane, 2012;sSimmons, Dobbins, & Garrett, 2008). Explanations generally fall into fourscategories: coercion (by powerful states), competition (e.g., for investment orsother economic adv...

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... 2016cps.sagepub.comDownloaded fromsPaterson et al. 3 and the creation of a “global” market. At this same time, the broader institutional context of climate governance became unstable and fragmenteds(=-=Abbott, 2012-=-; Biermann, Pattberg, & Zelli, 2010; Keohane & Victor, 2011),smultiple actors (e.g., firms, states, regions, subnational political units) camesto see responding to climate change as within their autho...

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...he functional story about learning and emulation does not fitsbecause most early adopters took on the policy as an experimental exercisesrather than based on success in other jurisdictions (Betsill & =-=Hoffmann, 2011-=-).sIn some places, this happened because authorities wanted to gain experiencesfor the global system (i.e., the United Kingdom, Norway, EU, etc.), while insother places because authorities anticipated...

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...vironment of support for national and regionalsaction on climate change, among other possible factors internal to the EU,scombined account for the adoption of the EU ETS (Skjærseth & Wettestad,s2008; =-=Wettestad, 2005-=-). Third, the functional story about learning and emulation does not fitsbecause most early adopters took on the policy as an experimental exercisesrather than based on success in other jurisdictions ...

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...ub.comDownloaded fromsPaterson et al. 3 and the creation of a “global” market. At this same time, the broader institutional context of climate governance became unstable and fragmenteds(Abbott, 2012; =-=Biermann, Pattberg, & Zelli, 2010-=-; Keohane & Victor, 2011),smultiple actors (e.g., firms, states, regions, subnational political units) camesto see responding to climate change as within their authority, and adopted ETsas a policy to...

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...s.sParties agreed to include ET in the Protocol at the insistence of the UnitedsStates and despite objections from the EU, many developing countries, andsenvironmentalists (Andresen & Agrawala, 2002; =-=Engels, 2006-=-; Yamin, 1998).sYet, the envisioned global system embedded in the Kyoto Protocol neversmaterialized, in part because the withdrawal of the United States from thesProtocol in 2001 led to significant un...

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...Sociology (e.g., Boissevain & Mitchell,s1973; Coleman, 1958; Scott, 1991; Wasserman & Faust, 1997; Wellman,s1983) but has recently emerged as a crucial methodology in political science as well (e.g., =-=Bach & Newman, 2010-=-; Cao, 2009, 2010; HafnerBurton, Kahler, & Montgomery, 2009; Hafner-Burton & Montgomery,s2006; Ward, Stovel, & Sacks, 2011). Put simply, a network is made up ofsnodes and edges. Nodes are the agents o...

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... or a few political jurisdictions get emulated or reproduced insother similar units, or how an idea promoted internationally—say through astreaty or an international institution—becomes state policy (=-=Cao, 2009-=-, 2010;sFinnemore, 1996; Finnemore & Sikkink, 1998; Füglister, 2011). It alsosfocuses almost exclusively on government actors as sources and targets. Itseven treats “go-between” actors as important al...

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...but has recently emerged as a crucial methodology in political science as well (e.g., Bach & Newman, 2010; Cao, 2009, 2010; HafnerBurton, Kahler, & Montgomery, 2009; Hafner-Burton & Montgomery,s2006; =-=Ward, Stovel, & Sacks, 2011-=-). Put simply, a network is made up ofsnodes and edges. Nodes are the agents of interest (in our case we define thesnodes as individuals or organizations working on carbon markets). Thesedges are the ...

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...ink tank Center forsClean Air Policy, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology andsother academics etc.) invested a lot of time and resources in participating in thesEuropean debate. (=-=Zapfel & Vainio, 2002-=-, p. 7) While the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) became involved,saccording to Zapfel and Vainio (2002), mainly transnational actors—academics, NGOs, think tanks—provided the link with the alre...

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...insother similar units, or how an idea promoted internationally—say through astreaty or an international institution—becomes state policy (Cao, 2009, 2010;sFinnemore, 1996; Finnemore & Sikkink, 1998; =-=Füglister, 2011-=-). It alsosfocuses almost exclusively on government actors as sources and targets. Itseven treats “go-between” actors as important almost exclusively in the context of their relationships with governm...

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...imilarspolicy instruments or institutional forms in different jurisdictions (e.g., Buschs& Jörgens, 2005; Graham, Shipan, & Volden, 2012; Holzinger, Knill, &sSommerer, 2008; Meseguer & Gilardi, 2009; =-=Ovodenko & Keohane, 2012-=-;sSimmons, Dobbins, & Garrett, 2008). Explanations generally fall into fourscategories: coercion (by powerful states), competition (e.g., for investment orsother economic advantage), learning and emul...

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...ard NegotiationsRoundtable,” which may have included Stavins who was then at Harvard, butsthis is not clear.13 He does cite another existing report by U.S. authors whosseem unconnected to Project 88 (=-=Swisher & Masters, 1989-=-) as well as a background paper for the first IPCC report that discussed, but did not advocate,sET (Bertram, Stephens, & Wallace, 1989; Tilley & Gilbert, 1990). This analysis of the texts at the time ...

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...eed to include ET in the Protocol at the insistence of the UnitedsStates and despite objections from the EU, many developing countries, andsenvironmentalists (Andresen & Agrawala, 2002; Engels, 2006; =-=Yamin, 1998-=-).sYet, the envisioned global system embedded in the Kyoto Protocol neversmaterialized, in part because the withdrawal of the United States from thesProtocol in 2001 led to significant uncertainty abo...

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...national or regional systems.sParties agreed to include ET in the Protocol at the insistence of the UnitedsStates and despite objections from the EU, many developing countries, andsenvironmentalists (=-=Andresen & Agrawala, 2002-=-; Engels, 2006; Yamin, 1998).sYet, the envisioned global system embedded in the Kyoto Protocol neversmaterialized, in part because the withdrawal of the United States from thesProtocol in 2001 led to ...

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... another existing report by U.S. authors whosseem unconnected to Project 88 (Swisher & Masters, 1989) as well as a background paper for the first IPCC report that discussed, but did not advocate,sET (=-=Bertram, Stephens, & Wallace, 1989-=-; Tilley & Gilbert, 1990). This analysis of the texts at the time as well as interview data supports oursfinding in the network analysis that the emerging European network clusterswas relatively detac...

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...preexisting politicalsjurisdictions in mind, it then seeks to explain how or why they select similarspolicy instruments or institutional forms in different jurisdictions (e.g., Buschs& Jörgens, 2005; =-=Graham, Shipan, & Volden, 2012-=-; Holzinger, Knill, &sSommerer, 2008; Meseguer & Gilardi, 2009; Ovodenko & Keohane, 2012;sSimmons, Dobbins, & Garrett, 2008). Explanations generally fall into fourscategories: coercion (by powerful st...

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...hors whosseem unconnected to Project 88 (Swisher & Masters, 1989) as well as a background paper for the first IPCC report that discussed, but did not advocate,sET (Bertram, Stephens, & Wallace, 1989; =-=Tilley & Gilbert, 1990-=-). This analysis of the texts at the time as well as interview data supports oursfinding in the network analysis that the emerging European network clusterswas relatively detached from the existing U....

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...S.sUnder-Secretary of State for Global Affairs) speech to the second Conferencesof the Parties in July 1996, where he proposed the adoption of “activitiessimplemented jointly and trading mechanisms” (=-=Wirth, 1996-=-) as elements inswhat would become the Kyoto Protocol.18 But this proposal ultimately boresfruit because of the foundational work that had been conducted by the earlysnetwork clusters, particularly th...