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...ortant differences to occur in different population units. The second criterionsis met if the population contributes substantially to the ecological or genetic diversity of the species as aswhole (NMF=-=S 1999-=-). The DPS policy adopts criteria similar to, but somewhat different from, those in thesESU policy for determining when a group of vertebrates constitutes a DPS: the group must be discretesfrom other ...

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...d NosSouth-Central California Coast Threatened NosCentral California Coast Threatened NosNorthern California Threatened NosCalifornia Central Valley Threatened NosPuget Sound Threatened NosSource: NMF=-=S 2009-=-sChinook SalmonsThe Chinook salmon’s historical range in North America extended from the Ventura River in Californiasto Point Hope, Alaska (Myers et al. 1998). The natural freshwater range for Chinook...

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...IFH. Insmarine biota, lead residues are generally highest near sources (e.g., disposal sites, dredging sites, miningsareas), but no significant biomagnification of lead occurs in aquatic food chains (=-=Eisler 1988-=-).sGULF OF ALASKA NAVY TRAINING ACTIVITIES EIS/OEIS FINAL (MARCH 2011)sEXPENDED MATERIALS 3.2-17s3.2.1.2 Current Requirements and PracticessReleases or discharges of hazardous wastes or materials are ...

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...TES 3.5-4sorganisms in the oceans depend either directly or indirectly on phytoplankton for survival. Growth andsdistribution of phytoplankton are influenced by several factors including temperature (=-=Eppley 1972-=-), lights(Yentsch and Lee 1966), nutrient concentration (Goldman et al. 1979), alkalinity (pH), and salinitys(Parsons et al. 1984). In general, the distribution of phytoplankton is patchy, occurring i...

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...evel is much higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years (Neftel et al.s1985). Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values this high were last seen about 20 millionsyears ago (=-=Pearson and Palmer 2000-=-). The burning of fossil fuel has produced about 75 percent of thesincrease in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years.sGHG emissions for a proposed action can be inventoried, based on methods ...

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...ters (mm)/year (yr) (Roark et al. 2005).sTrawls and heavy fishing gear used by commercial fishing have caused severe damage to deep-sea coralscommunities in many areas of the world including the GOA (=-=Freese et al. 1999-=-, Roberts and Hirshfields2004). Deep-sea coral communities are also susceptible to physical impacts caused by oil- and gas-relatedsactivities, cable laying, seabed aggregate extraction, shipping activ...

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... are higher than those of the phytoplankton, it isshypothesized that these consumers are capable of efficiently tracking and limiting the overall oceanicsproductivity by eating the primary producers (=-=Banse 1982-=-, Taniguchi 1999). Oceanic zooplankton in thesupper layers of the water column exhibit marked seasonality. In the late winter, biomass of zooplankton insthe region increased 5-fold to 100-fold (values...

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...anic regions. Following the shift to a positive (warm) PDOsregime in the late 1970s, zooplankton biomass doubled in the offshore regions of the GOA (Brodeur andsWare 1992, McFarlane and Beamish 1992, =-=Brodeur et al. 1996-=-, Francis and Hare 1997). During an ElsNiño event, a shallower mixed layer restricts the supply of nutrients to the ocean surface. In turn, thesentire GOA experiences extreme nitrate depletion and dec...

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... in the GOA host a traditional plankton community in which large phytoplankton (diatomssand dinoflagellates) are grazed upon by copepods (Cooney 1986b, Sambrotto and Lorenzen 1986, Incze etsal. 1997, =-=Coyle and Pinchuk 2003-=-, Cooney 2005, Coyle and Pinchuk 2005). The dominant zooplanktonsthat inhabit the GOA are copepods and cnidarians, and abundance and species composition is largelysdriven by local salinity (Coyle and ...

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...ed by an assemblage ofsmicrozooplankters and microconsumers, represented by abundant ciliate protozoans and small flagellates,srather than by large copepods (Miller et al. 1991a, Miller et al. 1991b, =-=Booth et al. 1993-=-, Dagg 1993,sFrost 1993). Because the growth rates of these grazers are higher than those of the phytoplankton, it isshypothesized that these consumers are capable of efficiently tracking and limiting...

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... ofsmicrozooplankters and microconsumers, represented by abundant ciliate protozoans and small flagellates,srather than by large copepods (Miller et al. 1991a, Miller et al. 1991b, Booth et al. 1993, =-=Dagg 1993-=-,sFrost 1993). Because the growth rates of these grazers are higher than those of the phytoplankton, it isshypothesized that these consumers are capable of efficiently tracking and limiting the overal...

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...er’s surface. Atsgreater angles of incidence, the water surface acts as an effective reflector of the sound wave, allowingsthe sound energy to remain largely unchanged in the above-water environment (=-=Urick 1972-=-, Eller andsCavanagh 2000). Navy training activities involving aircraft in the TMAA are generally dispersed overslarge expanses of the open ocean. Representative sound levels associated with military ...

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... deep-sea corals are known to occur in the GOA from the shoreline to the upper slope (3.3 to 2,789 fts[1 to 845 m]) water depth range; Heifetz 2002, Marine Conservation Biology Institute [MCBI] 2003,s=-=Etnoyer and Morgan 2005-=-).sGULF OF ALASKA NAVY TRAINING ACTIVITIES EIS/OEIS FINAL (MARCH 2011)sMARINE PLANTS AND INVERTEBRATES 3.5-10sTrue deep-sea coral communities live in complete darkness, in temperatures as low as 39 de...

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...rence of habitatforming deep-sea corals in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Deep-sea corals are typically found from the edgesof the continental shelf to the continental rise, on banks, and on seamounts (=-=Freiwald et al. 2004-=-). Whilesthe mean depth range of deep-sea corals in the Northeast Pacific Ocean is 875 to 4,165 ft (265 to 1,262sm), deep-sea corals are known to occur in the GOA from the shoreline to the upper slope...

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...tallic tungsten dissolves in water, reachingsconcentrations up to 475-500 mg/L. The dissolution of tungsten is associated with a decrease in dissolvedsoxygen and pH in both aqueous and soil matrices (=-=Strigul et al. 2005-=-). The corrosion rates of tungstensGULF OF ALASKA NAVY TRAINING ACTIVITIES EIS/OEIS FINAL (MARCH 2011)sEXPENDED MATERIALS 3.2-12salloys increase as pH increases, and also increase with exposure to chl...

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...seafloor, artificialssubstrates are provided for the settlement and colonization of epibenthic organisms (e.g., algae, sponges,sbarnacles, mussels, amphipods, soft corals, sea anemones, and hydroids; =-=Ambrose and Swarbrick 1989-=-,sDeMartini et al. 1994). The initial colonization of artificial habitats works to build communities thatsincrease marine production by providing an attachment substrate and a biotope suitable for lar...

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...kken 2001). Chemosynthetic communities are assignificant source of biological productivity on the deep-sea floor. In some locations, vast fields ofshydrothermal vents can support benthic communities (=-=Fisher et al. 2000-=-, Lanoil et al. 2001, Reed et al.s2002). In other locations, gas hydrates in the sediments support extensive chemosynthetic communitiess(Fujikura et al. 2002).sChemosynthetic habitats are formed by a ...

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...hat chemolithoautotrophic bacteriasreside in, on, and around whale falls (Smith and Baco 2003). Sulfide diffuses out of the bone and providessthe energy source for the chemolithoautotrophic bacteria (=-=Bennett et al. 1994-=-, Butman et al. 1995, Smithsand Baco 2003).sAlthough whales have been much reduced throughout the world’s oceans, Smith (1992) estimates thatssuch sulfide-rich whale falls may have an average spacing ...

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...tes are provided for the settlement and colonization of epibenthic organisms (e.g., algae, sponges,sbarnacles, mussels, amphipods, soft corals, sea anemones, and hydroids; Ambrose and Swarbrick 1989,s=-=DeMartini et al. 1994-=-). The initial colonization of artificial habitats works to build communities thatsincrease marine production by providing an attachment substrate and a biotope suitable for larger motilesorganisms (e...

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... An extensive review of literature, combined with controlledsexperiments, revealed that chaff use poses little risk to the environment or animals (U.S. Air Force 1997,sNaval Research Laboratory 1999, =-=Arfsten et al. 2002-=-, Farrell and Siciliano 2007). The materials in chaffsare generally nontoxic except in quantities significantly larger than those any animal could reasonably besexposed to from normal usage. Particula...

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.... In addition to copepods, larger micronektonic speciess(e.g., euphausiids, amphipods, and some shrimp species) can be important zooplankton components in thesdiets of local fish and large predators (=-=Coyle and Paul 1992-=-, Incze et al. 1997, Boldt and Haldorson 2003).sHighest levels of biomass tend to occur in the summer months of May (copepods) and Augusts(cnidarians); lowest values tend to occur in February (Coyle a...

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...e from patches of small solitary corals to massivesreef structures (mounds, banks, and forests) several meters to tens of kilometers across and a meter to tenssof meters high (Tucker and Wright 1990, =-=Cairns 1994-=-). The red tree coral, Primnoa pacifica, found in thesGOA (33 to 2,640 ft [10 to 800 m] water depth), can reach 9.9 ft (3 m) in height and 23.1 ft (7 m) inswidth and achieve over 100 years of age (Hei...

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...phic bacteriasreside in, on, and around whale falls (Smith and Baco 2003). Sulfide diffuses out of the bone and providessthe energy source for the chemolithoautotrophic bacteria (Bennett et al. 1994, =-=Butman et al. 1995-=-, Smithsand Baco 2003).sAlthough whales have been much reduced throughout the world’s oceans, Smith (1992) estimates thatssuch sulfide-rich whale falls may have an average spacing of one per 14 nm (25...

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...ES EIS/OEIS FINAL (MARCH 2011)sEXPENDED MATERIALS 3.2-12salloys increase as pH increases, and also increase with exposure to chloride ions, which are abundant inssalt water, in aqueous solution (U.S. =-=Army 1987-=-).sTungsten is a heavy metal that can have negative effects on humans and other biological organisms.sTungsten alloys may have additional health effects associated with the alloyed metals. The two pri...

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...ain low (approximately 0.3 milligrams [mg] chl/cubic meter [m3]) throughout the yearsand production does not reach the levels seen in coastal regions (Sambrotto and Lorenzen 1986, Martin etsal. 1989, =-=Boyd et al. 1995-=-). The phytoplankton community comprising the oceanic euphotic zone issdominated year-round by very small phytoplankton including small diatoms, naked flagellates, andscyanobacteria (Sambrotto and Lor...

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...lt mallardss(Anas platyrhynchos) were fed several types of shot, including tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot.sNone of the ducks that were fed either tungsten shot died during the 150-day trial (=-=Mitchell et al. 2001-=-).sSignificant liver hemosiderosis was present in some ducks for all types of shot, but it was determined thatsneither type of tungsten shot had deleterious health effects based on mortality, body wei...

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...40s--30s--20s--10s--0s____ 32 Times as Louds____16 Times as Louds____4 Times as Louds____1/4 as Louds____1/16 as LoudsMODERATEsVERY LOUDsUNCOMFORTABLEsQUIETsJUST AUDIBLEsThreshold ofsHearing Sources: =-=Harris, 1979-=-;sFederal InteragencysCommittee On Noises(FICON) 1992sGULF OF ALASKA NAVY TRAINING ACTIVITIES EIS/OEIS FINAL (MARCH 2011)sACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT (AIRBORNE) 3.4-4sSound PropagationsUnderstanding the impa...

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...lanet, with less than 5 ft (1.5 m) of vertical variation for every mile. In a few places,sextinct volcanoes or seamounts disrupt the monotony of the abyssal plain (Wilson 1976; Beaulieu 2001a,s2001b; =-=Cunha and Wilson 2003-=-; O'Dor 2003). The abyssal plain is regarded as the true ocean floor and isscharacterized by extremely cold water, no light, and extremely diverse marine inhabitants (e.g., deep seasisopods, polychaet...

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...species, representing 10 phyla, have been described along thescontinental shelf. Over the entire shelf of the GOA, the mean diversity and species richness was highestson banks and at the shelf break (=-=Feder and Jewett 1986-=-). The more offshore areas of the GOA, thescontinental slope and abyssal plain, are characterized as having substrata with large grain sizes (e.g.,sboulders, cobble) that provide macrohabitats to supp...

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...ng the shift to a positive (warm) PDOsregime in the late 1970s, zooplankton biomass doubled in the offshore regions of the GOA (Brodeur andsWare 1992, McFarlane and Beamish 1992, Brodeur et al. 1996, =-=Francis and Hare 1997-=-). During an ElsNiño event, a shallower mixed layer restricts the supply of nutrients to the ocean surface. In turn, thesentire GOA experiences extreme nitrate depletion and decreased levels of primar...

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...precipitation. Even during theswinter, most of the precipitation there falls as rain. The warmest weather is in June, July, and August. Thesdriest months occur from May through August (Naval Research =-=Laboratory 1993-=-).sWinds in the central GOA are primarily from the east or northeast, due to the interaction of the PacificsHigh with the GOA Low. Wind speeds often exceed 50 miles (mi) per hour (80 kilometers [km] p...

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...ourcesESA Listed Species Fin whale 0.010 Rone et al. (2009)sHumpback whale 0.0019 Rone et al. (2009)sSperm whale 0.0003 Waite (2003), Mellinger et al. (2004)sSteller sea lion 0.0098 Angliss and Allen =-=(2008)-=-, Bonnell and Bowlby (1992)sNon-ESA Listed Species Gray whale 0.0125 Moore et al. (2007)sMinke whale 0.0006 Waite (2003)sBaird's beaked whale 0.0005 Waite (2003)sCuvier's beaked whale 0.0022 Waite (20...

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...ourcesESA Listed Species Fin whale 0.010 Rone et al. (2009)sHumpback whale 0.0019 Rone et al. (2009)sSperm whale 0.0003 Waite (2003), Mellinger et al. (2004)sSteller sea lion 0.0098 Angliss and Allen =-=(2008)-=-, Bonnell and Bowlby (1992)sNon-ESA Listed Species Gray whale 0.0125 Moore et al. (2007)sMinke whale 0.0006 Waite (2003)sBaird's beaked whale 0.0005 Waite (2003)sCuvier's beaked whale 0.0022 Waite (20...

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...ourcesESA Listed Species Fin whale 0.010 Rone et al. (2009)sHumpback whale 0.0019 Rone et al. (2009)sSperm whale 0.0003 Waite (2003), Mellinger et al. (2004)sSteller sea lion 0.0098 Angliss and Allen =-=(2008)-=-, Bonnell and Bowlby (1992)sNon-ESA Listed Species Gray whale 0.0125 Moore et al. (2007)sMinke whale 0.0006 Waite (2003)sBaird's beaked whale 0.0005 Waite (2003)sCuvier's beaked whale 0.0022 Waite (20...

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...ourcesESA Listed Species Fin whale 0.010 Rone et al. (2009)sHumpback whale 0.0019 Rone et al. (2009)sSperm whale 0.0003 Waite (2003), Mellinger et al. (2004)sSteller sea lion 0.0098 Angliss and Allen =-=(2008)-=-, Bonnell and Bowlby (1992)sNon-ESA Listed Species Gray whale 0.0125 Moore et al. (2007)sMinke whale 0.0006 Waite (2003)sBaird's beaked whale 0.0005 Waite (2003)sCuvier's beaked whale 0.0022 Waite (20...

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...g with bottom geology. Ocean waters are in constant contactswith crustal materials, so there is little reason to believe that small amounts of chaff would affect eitherswater or sediment composition (=-=Hullar et al. 1999-=-).sNaval Gun ShellssUnder the No Action Alternative, 10,564 gun shells will be expended each year. Assuming a distributionsof expended materials over 20 percent of the TMAA, the deposition rate of exp...

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...lfur dioxidesbatteries, which may contain hazardous materials. Each EMATT contains a battery pack consisting of 15s“DD” size lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries, weighing approximately 6.2 lb (2.83 kg) (=-=Peed et al. 1988-=-).sLithium batteries consist of an exterior nickel-plated steel jacket, sulfur dioxide, lithium metal, carbon,sacetonitrile, and lithium bromide (DoN 2008a). The chemical reaction that generates elect...

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...an area of the Chesapeake Bay where chaff hadsbeen used for approximately 25 years indicated that aluminum concentrations in sediments were notssignificantly different than background concentrations (=-=Wilson et al. 2002-=-).sGULF OF ALASKA NAVY TRAINING ACTIVITIES EIS/OEIS FINAL (MARCH 2011)sEXPENDED MATERIALS 3.2-11sThe small explosive cartridge used to eject the chaff from a small tube may contain hazardous materials...

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...on shells composed of either depleted uranium (DU)sor tungsten. DU is “depleted” in that it has only one-third of the isotopes of U235 and 60 percent of thesradiation as natural uranium (World Health =-=Organization 2009-=-). Depleted uranium is not part of thesProposed Action for this EIS. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission approved the Navy's licensesapplication, which clearly stated that CIWS DU rounds would be fired ...

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...lved oxygen generally remains between 0.4 and 0.6smilliliter per liter (mL/L). Anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions are found in bottom sediments and at theswater-sediment interface in deep ocean basins (=-=Dailey et al. 1993-=-).sNutrients are chemicals or elements necessary to produce organic matter. In marine systems, basicsnutrients include dissolved nitrogen, phosphates, and silicates. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen occur...

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...ourcesESA Listed Species Fin whale 0.010 Rone et al. (2009)sHumpback whale 0.0019 Rone et al. (2009)sSperm whale 0.0003 Waite (2003), Mellinger et al. (2004)sSteller sea lion 0.0098 Angliss and Allen =-=(2008)-=-, Bonnell and Bowlby (1992)sNon-ESA Listed Species Gray whale 0.0125 Moore et al. (2007)sMinke whale 0.0006 Waite (2003)sBaird's beaked whale 0.0005 Waite (2003)sCuvier's beaked whale 0.0022 Waite (20...

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...bels,sA-weighted; ft - feet; lb - pound; TMAA – Temporary Maritime Activities Area; mm - millimeterssSource: Investigative Science and Engineering (ISE), 1997; Naval Air Station Whidbey Island, 1993;s=-=Ewbank, 1977-=-sSonic Boom NoisesSupersonic aircraft flights can occur from time to time in the TMAA. Such flights are usually limited tosaltitudes above 30,000 ft (9,144 m) and/or locations more than 30 nm (55.6 km...

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...of food for sea turtles.sOpen Ocean Deepwater Benthic Habitats The variety of bottom substrates and the complicated system of water circulation and bathymetry in thesGOA results in a complex benthos (=-=Chikuni 1985-=-). The distribution of the benthos in the GOA issprimarily a function of depth (i.e., light penetration, temperature, and wave action) and substrate (i.e.,savailability and type of substrate and movem...

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...ers contain identifiable collections of macrohabitats that sustain resident and migratorysspecies including seabirds, marine mammals, invertebrates, and fishes (e.g., salmon and groundfish;sMundy and =-=Cooney 2005-=-, Mundy and Spies 2005); these habitats support some of the largest fisheries insthe United States. (Heifetz et al. 2003).sImportant ecosystem functions provided by marine plants and invertebrates wit...

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...nt. In addition to artificial structuressintentionally or accidentally placed on the seafloor, fish aggregating devices are suspended in the waterscolumn and anchored on the seafloor to attract fish (=-=Fager 1971-=-, Bohnsack et al. 1991). Artificialsstructures provide a substrate upon which a marine community can develop (Ritter et al. 1999).sNavigational, meteorological, and oceanographic buoys suspended in th...