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...n terms of the size of their social circle, the strength of their ties, the average geographical distance over which they maintain relationships, and their propensity to enter into new relationships (=-=Granovetter 1973-=-). Given the characteristics of the Internet as a decentralized medium that enables user-initiated information retrieval and communication over longer distances at lower cost than, say, the telephone,...

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...ticular, follows complex patterns shaped not only by the technical merits of the innovation itself but also by the economic, political, and sociological context in which it occurs. (For a review, see =-=Rogers 1995-=-.) Our theoretical and empirical analysis of the global digital divide controls for the effects of three variables commonly found to affect access and use of new media, namely, socioeconomic status, t...

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...s, military strategists, social commentators, scholars, and journalists. Some early optimistic analyses envisioned the Internet as a “decentralizing, globalizing, harmonizing, and empowering” medium (=-=Negroponte 1995-=-:229), as a new communication technology that would bring about a “smaller, more open world.” (Tapscott and Caston 1993:313) The most enthusiastic visionaries have argued that the Internet means the “...

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...ted States, Canada or Australia. In their view, global capitalist forces generate profound inequalities between the developed “core,” the developing “semi-periphery,” and the undeveloped “periphery” (=-=Wallerstein 1974-=-; Ragin and Chirot 1984; Smith and White 1992; Van Rossem 1996). The key point in dependency and world-system research is that tighter integration with the rest of the world does not necessarily lead ...

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... of trade between advanced (core) countries and developing (peripheral) countries tend to evolve to the detriment of the latter. As a result, peripheral countries become relatively more impoverished (=-=Pritchett 1997-=-). Likewise, world-system scholars see underdevelopment as the result of a country's integration into the modern "world-system" created by the capitalist development of Western Europe and its more suc...

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... in many respects, the Internet has not yet brought about the economic, political, and social improvements predicted by some (for reviews, see: DiMaggio et al. 2001; Norris 2001; Putnam 2001:169-180; =-=Wellman 2001-=-; Wynn and Katz 1997). The key theoretical problem with the optimistic prospects lies in the assumption that new technology enables everyone. Scholars have noted that the Internet tends to reinforce e...

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... second method addresses the potential concern that our time series is relatively short (five years) by estimating the regression equations using heteroscedasticity-consistent standard errors (HCSEs; =-=Long and Ervin 2000-=-). We also add a lagged dependent variable to account for serial correlation. The HCSE method yields the same point estimates as PCSE, but different standard error estimates. The first two estimation ...

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... view, global capitalist forces generate profound inequalities between the developed "core," the developing "semi-periphery," and the undeveloped "periphery" (Wallerstein 1974; Ragin and Chirot 1984; =-=Smith and White 1992-=-; Van Rossem 1996). The key point in dependency and world-system research is that tighter integration with the rest of the world does not necessarily lead to greater economic growth or social well-bei...

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...oned the Internet as a “decentralizing, globalizing, harmonizing, and empowering” medium (Negroponte 1995:229), as a new communication technology that would bring about a “smaller, more open world.” (=-=Tapscott and Caston 1993-=-:313) The most enthusiastic visionaries have argued that the Internet means the “triumph over time and space,” the rise of the “netizen,” and the crowning of the “customer as sovereign” (Gilder 2000)....

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...hat economic, political and emulation variables increase Internet use and hosting (Milner 2006). Another unpublished study used cross-sectional panel data for both developing and developed countries (=-=Chinn and Fairlie 2004-=-), and also found a strong effect of per capita income. Based on the findings reported in the literature and on her own crosssectional analysis at the country level, Norris (2001:63) observed that pol...

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...rn e tsU s e rss( %so fsp o p u la ti o n ) Source: World Bank (2003). Note: There are 24 countries classified as High-Income OECD. analyzed cross-sectional data for the most advanced countries only (=-=Hargittai 1999-=-; Oxley and Yeung 2001), while others have examined data at one point in time but including developing as well as developed countries (Beilock and Dimitrova 2003; Guillén and Suárez 2001; Maitland and...

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...cts, the Internet has not yet brought about the economic, political, and social improvements predicted by some (for reviews, see: DiMaggio et al. 2001; Norris 2001; Putnam 2001:169-180; Wellman 2001; =-=Wynn and Katz 1997-=-).sThe key theoretical problem with the optimistic prospects lies in the assumption that new technology enables everyone. Scholars have noted that the Internet tends to reinforce existing class and so...

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...ctional data for the most advanced countries only (Hargittai 1999; Oxley and Yeung 2001), while others have examined data at one point in time but including developing as well as developed countries (=-=Beilock and Dimitrova 2003-=-; Guillen and Suarez 2001; Maitland and Bauer 2001; Norris 2001:58-64; Volken 2002). A third group of previous studies has used pooled cross-section time-series data for the most advanced countries (B...

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...t on political participation (for reviews see: Norris 2001:97-98, 112-170; Putnam 2001:169-180; Papacharissi 2002; see also: Foster and Mosco 2001; Gibson, Howard and Ward 2000; Gibson and Ward 1999; =-=Bimber 1998-=-, 1999, 2001; Tambini 1999). 4. Her statistical analysis based on a cross-section of Internet use by country, however, did not find a significant effect of democratic freedom (Norris 2001:62). Using a...

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...he extent to which they use means of mass communication to acquire information. Those of a higher socioeconomic status use them at a higher rate, and the gap between the segments increases over time (=-=Viswanath and Finnegan 1996-=-). As noted above, a variety of empirical studies of the global digital divide using aggregate data have found evidence to the effect that the average standard of living andsat Pennsylvania State U ni...

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...rgittai 1999; Oxley and Yeung 2001), while others have examined data at one point in time but including developing as well as developed countries (Beilock and Dimitrova 2003; Guillén and Suárez 2001; =-=Maitland and Bauer 2001-=-; Norris 2001:58-64; Volken 2002). A third group of previous studies has used pooled cross-section time-series data for the most advanced countries (Bauer, Berne and Maitland 2002), finding that, in a...

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...e adopted by engaging in policymaking and regulation. The Internet is part of the institutionally complex, economically important, tightly regulated, and highly politicized telecommunications sector (=-=D'Souza and Megginson 1999-=-b). National telecommunications systems and markets differ in their reach, quality and cost, which in turn are affected by the ways in which regulation takes place, the ownership of companies active i...

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...ss the development of the Internet changes course and becomes driven by the needs of citizens, its current path will likely exacerbate social inequalities (McChesney 1999, 2000; Mosco 2000; see also: =-=Wasko 2001-=-; Jones 2000; Herman and Chomsky 1988). Most researchers agree that the Internet has both empowered and discriminated, enabling some to pursue a better life while leaving the majority of the world’s p...

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..., the Internet can create a public sphere in Habermas’s (1989) sense, one that is not regulated by the state or by commercial interests but rather owned and controlled by the participants themselves (=-=Schneider 1996-=-).sWhile some of the cyber-optimists recognized the looming issue of inequality in access to the Internet (e.g. Tapscott and Caston 1993:312), it was not until the late 1990s that international organi...

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...ion (for reviews see: Norris 2001:97-98, 112-170; Putnam 2001:169-180; Papacharissi 2002; see also: Foster and Mosco 2001; Gibson, Howard and Ward 2000; Gibson and Ward 1999; Bimber 1998, 1999, 2001; =-=Tambini 1999-=-). 4. Her statistical analysis based on a cross-section of Internet use by country, however, did not find a significant effect of democratic freedom (Norris 2001:62). Using a different measure of civi...

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...al. 2001:444; Boneva andsat Pennsylvania State U niversity on M ay 10, 2016 http://sf.oxfordjournals.org/ D ow nloaded from 690 • Social Forces Volume 84, Number 2 • December 2005 Kraut 2002:391-392; =-=Quan-Haase and Wellman 2002-=-:302-303). Other surveys found that the sizes of both the local and the distant social circle increased as a result of sustained Internet use (Kraut et al. 2001:61; Robinson and Neustadtl 2002). Thus,...

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...tal revolution are driven by political-economic forces, including the activities of media corporations and the policies of the dominant states in the world (Davidson 2002; McChesney 1999; Mosco 1996; =-=Schiller 1996-=-). The Internet is presented as a medium that offers not only opportunities but also threatens to exacerbate technology gaps. Research has shown that the geographical distribution of high-technology e...

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... view, global capitalist forces generate profound inequalities between the developed “core,” the developing “semi-periphery,” and the undeveloped “periphery” (Wallerstein 1974; Ragin and Chirot 1984; =-=Smith and White 1992-=-; Van Rossem 1996). The key point in dependency and world-system research is that tighter integration with the rest of the world does not necessarily lead to greater economic growth or social well-bei...

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...mopolitanism" is commonly defined by sociologists as including elements such as geographical mobility, frequent travel, and a curiosity about other places and cultures (Szerszynski and Urry 2002:470; =-=Beck 2000-=-). The mass communication literature confirms that there is a connection between cosmopolitanism and increased media use (for a review see Szerszynski and Urry 2002; see also Scannell 1996). The evide...

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...c forbidden sites tends to slow down the speed of information flow, thus discouraging use of the Internet and limiting its diffusion, as has been reported in Singapore and Saudi Arabia (Hancock 1999; =-=Hogan 1999-=-; Rodan 1996, 1998; AP 2001; Zittrain and Edelman 2002). Politically motivated shutdowns of websites, discussion groups, Internet service providers (ISPs) or cybercafés tend to be highly disruptive ac...

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... or cyber-dissidents have been arrested and received harsh sentences for their pro-democracy activities over the Internet.5 Similar developments have been reported in China (Abbott 2001; Cooper 2000; =-=Taubman 1998-=-). It is important to note that Internet diffusion may be slowed down if politically motivated governmental restrictions drive foreign investment in telecommunications away from countries that lack do...

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...bal Digital Divide • 683 study to study, the norm being aggregate data at the country level.' Some researchers have analyzed cross-sectional data for the most advanced countries only (Hargittai 1999; =-=Oxley and Yeung 2001-=-), while others have examined data at one point in time but including developing as well as developed countries (Beilock and Dimitrova 2003; Guillen and Suarez 2001; Maitland and Bauer 2001; Norris 20...

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...e dependent variable considered in this paper but also on a number of the independent variables. The ITU is considered to be the best available source of information on the Internet around the world (=-=Abramson 2000-=-:70; Minges 2000). While the ITU has tracked Internet use since 1990, we start our analysis in 1997 because of the poor quality of the data prior to that year. Independent Variables We measure world-s...

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...hat economic, political and emulation variables increase Internet use and hosting (Milner 2006). Another unpublished study used cross-sectional panel data for both developing and developed countries (=-=Chinn and Fairlie 2004-=-), and also found a strong effect of per capita income. Based on the findings reported in the literature and on her own crosssectional analysis at the country level, Norris (2001:63) observed that pol...

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...sites tends to slow down the speed of information flow, thus discouraging use of the Internet and limiting its diffusion, as has been reported in Singapore and Saudi Arabia (Hancock 1999; Hogan 1999; =-=Rodan 1996-=-, 1998; AP 2001; Zittrain and Edelman 2002). Politically motivated shutdowns of websites, discussion groups, Internet service providers (ISPs) or cybercafés tend to be highly disruptive actions. For i...

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...is that communication media are more likely to be adopted or used the higher the socioeconomic status. A long tradition of research in media studies confirms the so-called “knowledge gap” hypothesis (=-=Star and Hughes 1950-=-; Tichenor, Donohue and Olien 1970), whereby people differ in the extent to which they use means of mass communication to acquire information. Those of a higher socioeconomic status use them at a high...

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...ctional data for the most advanced countries only (Hargittai 1999; Oxley and Yeung 2001), while others have examined data at one point in time but including developing as well as developed countries (=-=Beilock and Dimitrova 2003-=-; Guillén and Suárez 2001; Maitland and Bauer 2001; Norris 2001:58-64; Volken 2002). A third group of previous studies has used pooled cross-section time-series data for the most advanced countries (B...

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... the government of Malaysia to end restrictions, including monitoring Internet activity for messages considered a threat to national security and requiring cybercafés to register with the government (=-=McDaniel 2002-=-:170-172; Legard 1999). Given the decentralized and user-initiated nature of the communication that the Internet enables, the challenges and threats that this entails to political regimes in which dem...

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...ess to specific forbidden sites tends to slow down the speed of information flow, thus discouraging use of the Internet and limiting its diffusion, as has been reported in Singapore and Saudi Arabia (=-=Hancock 1999-=-; Hogan 1999; Rodan 1996, 1998; AP 2001; Zittrain and Edelman 2002). Politically motivated shutdowns of websites, discussion groups, Internet service providers (ISPs) or cybercafes tend to be highly d...

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...opment of the Internet changes course and becomes driven by the needs of citizens, its current path will likely exacerbate social inequalities (McChesney 1999, 2000; Mosco 2000; see also: Wasko 2001; =-=Jones 2000-=-; Herman and Chomsky 1988). Most researchers agree that the Internet has both empowered and discriminated, enabling some to pursue a better life while leaving the majority of the world's population be...

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...ble to maintain and expand their long-distance relationships to a much greater extent than non-users. The impact of online experience was greater as the geographical distance with contacts increased (=-=Hampton and Wellman 2002-=-:359-365). In other surveys, respondents reported using email more often for longdistance relationships because of the obvious cost and time-zone considerations, although Explaining the Global Digital...

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...ess to specific forbidden sites tends to slow down the speed of information flow, thus discouraging use of the Internet and limiting its diffusion, as has been reported in Singapore and Saudi Arabia (=-=Hancock 1999-=-; Hogan 1999; Rodan 1996, 1998; AP 2001; Zittrain and Edelman 2002). Politically motivated shutdowns of websites, discussion groups, Internet service providers (ISPs) or cybercafés tend to be highly d...

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...ellman 2002; Quan-Haase and Wellman 2002; Kavanaugh and Patterson 2002), while others have concluded that the Internet tends to alienate individuals from one another and to increase social isolation (=-=Hern and Chaulk 2000-=-; Nie, Hillygus and Erbring 2002; Franzen 2000:435). In some cases, isolation and psychological stress were found to increase during the early stages of use (Kraut et al. 1998), but not after the user...

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...thers have examined data at one point in time but including developing as well as developed countries (Beilock and Dimitrova 2003; Guillén and Suárez 2001; Maitland and Bauer 2001; Norris 2001:58-64; =-=Volken 2002-=-). A third group of previous studies has used pooled cross-section time-series data for the most advanced countries (Bauer, Berne and Maitland 2002), finding that, in addition to income and cost, comp...

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...effects of the Internet on political participation (for reviews see: Norris 2001:97-98, 112-170; Putnam 2001:169-180; Papacharissi 2002; see also: Foster and Mosco 2001; Gibson, Howard and Ward 2000; =-=Gibson and Ward 1999-=-; Bimber 1998, 1999, 2001; Tambini 1999). 4. Her statistical analysis based on a cross-section of Internet use by country, however, did not find a significant effect of democratic freedom (Norris 2001...

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...effects of the Internet on political participation (for reviews see: Norris 2001:97-98, 112-170; Putnam 2001:169-180; Papacharissi 2002; see also: Foster and Mosco 2001; Gibson, Howard and Ward 2000; =-=Gibson and Ward 1999-=-; Bimber 1998, 1999, 2001; Tambini 1999). 4. Her statistical analysis based on a cross-section of Internet use by country, however, did not find a significant effect of democratic freedom (Norris 2001...

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...vanced countries only (Hargittai 1999; Oxley and Yeung 2001), while others have examined data at one point in time but including developing as well as developed countries (Beilock and Dimitrova 2003; =-=Guillén and Suárez 2001-=-; Maitland and Bauer 2001; Norris 2001:58-64; Volken 2002). A third group of previous studies has used pooled cross-section time-series data for the most advanced countries (Bauer, Berne and Maitland ...

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...xtreme case, the authoritarian or totalitarian government directly controls all of the physical access to the Internet. For instance, North Korea does not allow any access to the Internet (Radio Free =-=Europe 1999-=-). In Cuba, public Internet access is restricted to a selected number of universities and employers. There is no opportunity to access the Internet individually or outside of the workplace (Boas 2000;...

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...mption that new technology enables everyone. Scholars have noted that the Internet tends to reinforce existing class and social relations both within and across countries (Mosco 1996; McChesney 1999; =-=Everett 1998-=-). Critical mass communication scholars point out that a "handful of private, giant, communications conglomerates" enabled by governments dominate the media industry, disenfranchising rather than enab...

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...xtreme case, the authoritarian or totalitarian government directly controls all of the physical access to the Internet. For instance, North Korea does not allow any access to the Internet (Radio Free =-=Europe 1999-=-). In Cuba, public Internet access is restricted to a selected number of universities and employers. There is no opportunity to access the Internet individually or outside of the workplace (Boas 2000;...

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...158). The expansion of telecommunication markets through privatization, deregulation, and enhanced competition has frequently been proposed as key to the transition to the global information society (=-=Wilson 1998-=-). Cross-national studies using time-series data on the most advanced countries have found support for the effect of competition on Internet use, controlling for cost of access (Bauer et al. 2002). Th...

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...Even before the country was connected to the Internet, Hanoi issued restrictions that could result in the shutdown of service providers "to prevent sources of bad information from entering Vietnam." (=-=Yamamoto 1996-=-) Middle Eastern Arab leaders initially slowed the pace of Internet diffusion for fear that "loss of control over basic information networks might result in revolutionary political change." (Franda 20...