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...rception, and learning). The model bears a family resemblance to several hitherto disparate approaches, including Murdock’s (1960) distinctiveness theory; ratio-rule models of memory retrieval (e.g., =-=Baddeley, 1976-=-; Bjork & Whitten, 1974; Crowder, 1976; Glenberg & Swanson, 1986); nontemporal exemplar models (Nosofsky, 1986, 1992); the feature model (e.g., Nairne, 1990); earlier temporal distinctiveness and osci...

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... not needed for the data we have considered. A detailed description of all of the findings that have been taken to support a short-term/long-term memory distinction (for comprehensive statements, see =-=Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968-=-; Baddeley, 1976; Glanzer, 1972; Izawa, 1999) must be the subject of a separate article. We note in particular that arguments for separate stores are buttressed by many other methodologies that we hav...

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... models of memory (e.g., G. D. A. Brown, Preece, & Hulme, 2000; Burgess & Hitch, 1999; Neath, 1993a, 1993b); and, mores540 generally, models that place time at the heart of memory and learning (e.g., =-=Gallistel, 1990-=-; Gallistel & Gibbon, 2002). The majority of the article is devoted to applications of the model to a number of serial recall and free recall phenomena. Scale-Similar Effects in Memory and Identificat...

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...vide the clearest contrasts on some of the key principles, but we acknowledge the large number of models of memory that we cannot do justice to here for reasons of space (e.g., Anderson et al., 1998; =-=Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984-=-; Howard & Kahana, 2002). In its emphasis on the importance of a temporal dimension in serial recall, SIMPLE bears a family resemblance to the OSCAR model (G. D. A. Brown & Vousden, 1998; G. D. A. Bro...

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...ode was learned and a is a constant. To the extent that the time course of human memory loss does more or less closely follow a power law, as has been suggested by a number of researchers (see, e.g., =-=Anderson & Schooler, 1991-=-; Rubin & Wenzel, 1996; Wixted & Ebbesen, 1991, 1997), forgetting may be seen as scale independent. 1 Many researchers have, however, claimed that forgetting curves are not best described by a power l...

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...at extremes (e.g., for subatomic weights), the default search is for scientific principles that are universal in that they apply over as wide a range of temporal and spatial scales as possible (e.g., =-=Barenblatt, 1996-=-). In developing models of human memory, however, it is widely assumed that different principles apply over different (short and long) timescales. Here, in contrast, we explore the extent to which com...

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...ndings of Keppel and Underwood, Turvey et al., and others. This continued attention arises partly because of the success of trace-decay/rehearsal models in accounting for item duration effects (e.g., =-=Baddeley, Thomson, & Buchanan, 1975-=-; but see, e.g., G. D. A. Brown & Hulme, 1995; Neath, Bireta, & Surprenant, 2003) and partly because of the lack of an adequate interference-based account of the relevant shortterm memory phenomena (i...

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...ute identification, categorization, and recognition performance account for a range of empirical data to a high level of precision (e.g., Ashby, 1992; Ashby & Perrin, 1988; Erickson & Kruschke, 1998; =-=Estes, 1994-=-; Kruschke, 1992; Kruschke & Johansen, 1999; Lamberts, 1995; Nosofsky, 1986; Nosofsky & Palmeri, 1997). In many respects such models seem more advanced than current models of serial and free recall. 1...

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...ll. Current models of absolute identification, categorization, and recognition performance account for a range of empirical data to a high level of precision (e.g., Ashby, 1992; Ashby & Perrin, 1988; =-=Erickson & Kruschke, 1998-=-; Estes, 1994; Kruschke, 1992; Kruschke & Johansen, 1999; Lamberts, 1995; Nosofsky, 1986; Nosofsky & Palmeri, 1997). In many respects such models seem more advanced than current models of serial and f...

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...s a family resemblance to several hitherto disparate approaches, including Murdock’s (1960) distinctiveness theory; ratio-rule models of memory retrieval (e.g., Baddeley, 1976; Bjork & Whitten, 1974; =-=Crowder, 1976-=-; Glenberg & Swanson, 1986); nontemporal exemplar models (Nosofsky, 1986, 1992); the feature model (e.g., Nairne, 1990); earlier temporal distinctiveness and oscillatorbased models of memory (e.g., G....

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...ral exemplar models (Nosofsky, 1986, 1992); the feature model (e.g., Nairne, 1990); earlier temporal distinctiveness and oscillatorbased models of memory (e.g., G. D. A. Brown, Preece, & Hulme, 2000; =-=Burgess & Hitch, 1999-=-; Neath, 1993a, 1993b); and, mores540 generally, models that place time at the heart of memory and learning (e.g., Gallistel, 1990; Gallistel & Gibbon, 2002). The majority of the article is devoted to...

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...ver time has been central to recent models of timing behavior, such as scalar expectancy theory (e.g., Gibbon, Church, & Meck, 1984), and to time-based approaches to animal learning (Gallistel, 1990; =-=Gallistel & Gibbon, 2000-=-). Indeed, Gallistel and Gibbon (2002) argued that in the case of animal learning it is essential to account for “the time-scale invariance of the acquisition process, which we take to be the single m...

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...arget items. Do similar principles apply in the case of short-term forgetting? Such questions are central to the scale-similar memory assumption. The rapid forgetting over time of consonant pairs (J. =-=Brown, 1958-=-) or trigrams (Peterson & Peterson, 1959) when rehearsal was prevented during the retention interval was interpreted at the time as evidence for trace decay models (J. Brown, 1958) and as evidence tha...

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...able, identification performance may be almost unaffected when the spacing of items along the perceptual scale is increased by a constant factor (e.g., Alluisi & Sidorsky, 1958; Eriksen & Hake, 1955; =-=Garner, 1962-=-; Miller, 1956; Pollack, 1952; Shiffrin & Nosofsky, 1994). Scale similarity is also evident in the A TEMPORAL RATIO MODEL OF MEMORY 543 serial position effects obtained in absolute identification expe...

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...ay be good adaptive reasons for preserving distinct traces of multiple episodes, for the counting of such traces is often assumed to be important in estimation and calculation (e.g., Gallistel, 1990; =-=Gigerenzer, 2000-=-). Many of the difficulties of “global” models of memory (Clark & Gronlund, 1996), whether applied to recognition, serial recall, or free recall, appear to result from the agglomeration of separate ep...

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...e, 2002). There is no trace decay in the model. 14 This absence of trace decay distinguishes SIMPLE sharply from the majority of recent implemented models of both short-term and working memory (e.g., =-=Anderson, Bothell, Lebiere, & Matessa, 1998-=-; Anderson & Matessa, 1997; Burgess & Hitch, 1992, 1999; Henson, 1998b; Kieras, Meyer, Mueller, & Seymour, 1999; Lovett, Reder, & Lebiere, 1999; Page & Norris, 1998; Schneider, 1999). Despite the abse...

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...or the serial order of verbal items is reduced when the items are phonologically confusable, with the additional errors being predominantly movement errors (transpositions; see Baddeley & Ecob, 1970; =-=Conrad, 1964-=-, 1967; Estes, 1973; Healy, 1975). Second, we examine the tendency for items recalled in the wrong serial position nevertheless to be recalled in positions close to the correct one. An additional ques...

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...participants will respond consistently in judging a given input; values near zero imply that participants will make highly variable responses with only a slight preference for the “correct response” (=-=Ashby & Maddox, 1993-=-). In the simulations below we set � to 1.0, and the parameter can be ignored for present purposes. 4 The model as described above can address probed serial recall and order reconstruction tasks, beca...

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...e (scalar timing), which is seen as a core explanandum. Evidence for scale dependence in specific situations is seen as informative in the context of the default assumption of scale independence (see =-=Buhusi & Meck, 2005-=-, for a recent review). Here we explore a similar approach in the context of human memory, where the default assumption in the extant literature is, in contrast, one of complete temporal scale depende...

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...erg & Swanson, 1986); nontemporal exemplar models (Nosofsky, 1986, 1992); the feature model (e.g., Nairne, 1990); earlier temporal distinctiveness and oscillatorbased models of memory (e.g., G. D. A. =-=Brown, Preece, & Hulme, 2000-=-; Burgess & Hitch, 1999; Neath, 1993a, 1993b); and, mores540 generally, models that place time at the heart of memory and learning (e.g., Gallistel, 1990; Gallistel & Gibbon, 2002). The majority of th...

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...y, perception, and learning model) as a function of the size of the category shift. B: Release from proactive interference in SIMPLE as a function of the passage of time.s556 adaptive considerations (=-=Anderson & Milson, 1989-=-; Anderson & Schooler, 1991). A power function has the form P � aT –b , where P is the measure of memory performance, T is time elapsed, and a and b are constants. We address three related questions: ...

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...ems particularly if recall is immediate, followed by other items. Precise protocol of output is somewhat variable, although a strong forward bias is 8 This effect is also observed experimentally (see =-=Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971-=-; Murdock, 1962; Postman & Phillips, 1965). 9 Tan and Ward found small or absent effects of rate of presentation, or word frequency, when recall probability was considered as a function of last rehear...

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...nce for explanations that hold over many scales, an emphasis on phenomena that remain invariant over time has been central to recent models of timing behavior, such as scalar expectancy theory (e.g., =-=Gibbon, Church, & Meck, 1984-=-), and to time-based approaches to animal learning (Gallistel, 1990; Gallistel & Gibbon, 2000). Indeed, Gallistel and Gibbon (2002) argued that in the case of animal learning it is essential to accoun...

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...iscouraged (Wright et al., 1990). The most detailed evidence has come from the study of recency effects. Although recency effects disappear after a filled retention BROWN, NEATH, AND CHATER interval (=-=Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966-=-; Postman & Phillips, 1965), the effect reappears if the spacing between presented items is increased (Bjork & Whitten, 1974) and is seen when retrieval from long-term memory is required (Baddeley & H...

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...sodes, for the counting of such traces is often assumed to be important in estimation and calculation (e.g., Gallistel, 1990; Gigerenzer, 2000). Many of the difficulties of “global” models of memory (=-=Clark & Gronlund, 1996-=-), whether applied to recognition, serial recall, or free recall, appear to result from the agglomeration of separate episodes into a single memory or weight matrix. Crowder (1976) reviewed much relev...

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...f serial and free recall. Current models of absolute identification, categorization, and recognition performance account for a range of empirical data to a high level of precision (e.g., Ashby, 1992; =-=Ashby & Perrin, 1988-=-; Erickson & Kruschke, 1998; Estes, 1994; Kruschke, 1992; Kruschke & Johansen, 1999; Lamberts, 1995; Nosofsky, 1986; Nosofsky & Palmeri, 1997). In many respects such models seem more advanced than cur...

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...arning). The model bears a family resemblance to several hitherto disparate approaches, including Murdock’s (1960) distinctiveness theory; ratio-rule models of memory retrieval (e.g., Baddeley, 1976; =-=Bjork & Whitten, 1974-=-; Crowder, 1976; Glenberg & Swanson, 1986); nontemporal exemplar models (Nosofsky, 1986, 1992); the feature model (e.g., Nairne, 1990); earlier temporal distinctiveness and oscillatorbased models of m...

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... the domain of serial and free recall. Current models of absolute identification, categorization, and recognition performance account for a range of empirical data to a high level of precision (e.g., =-=Ashby, 1992-=-; Ashby & Perrin, 1988; Erickson & Kruschke, 1998; Estes, 1994; Kruschke, 1992; Kruschke & Johansen, 1999; Lamberts, 1995; Nosofsky, 1986; Nosofsky & Palmeri, 1997). In many respects such models seem ...

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...ences of temporal distinctiveness principles rather than to specify a full process model. A further limitation of the model as described is its silence on organizational factors in free recall (e.g., =-=Bousfield, 1953-=-; Mandler, Pearlstone, & Koopmans, 1969) and the emergence of such factors with practice (Tulving, 1966). This limitation arises in part because we have omitted any specification of output order proce...

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...along different dimensions, typically positional rather than temporal (e.g., item within list; list within trial), are represented simultaneously and independently (e.g., G. D. A. Brown et al., 2000; =-=Burgess & Hitch, 1992-=-, 1999; Henson, 1998b; Lee & Estes, 1981; Nairne, 1991). Within the present framework, we can conceive of items as being retrieved on the basis of their position in a two-dimensional space, where one ...

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...rasts with the primacy gradient model (Page & Norris, 1998) particularly in its 15 For example, such models are better able to accommodate issues like the dangers of averaging data over participants (=-=Ashby, Maddox, & Lee, 1994-=-; Maddox, 1999). 16 For example, they can do so via the M parameter in the Nosofsky and Palmeri (1997) exemplar-based random walk model.s568 emphasis on commonalities between short-term and long-term ...

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...l. 14 This absence of trace decay distinguishes SIMPLE sharply from the majority of recent implemented models of both short-term and working memory (e.g., Anderson, Bothell, Lebiere, & Matessa, 1998; =-=Anderson & Matessa, 1997-=-; Burgess & Hitch, 1992, 1999; Henson, 1998b; Kieras, Meyer, Mueller, & Seymour, 1999; Lovett, Reder, & Lebiere, 1999; Page & Norris, 1998; Schneider, 1999). Despite the absence of trace decay, SIMPLE...

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...y showing how time-based forgetting can occur in the absence of trace decay or degradation of any kind, and by showing how the passage of time can lead to release from PI (simulations above; see also =-=Estes, 1955-=-; Mensink & Raaijmakers, 1988), SIMPLE illustrates how key features of the data can be explained without the assumption of trace decay, spontaneous recovery of associations, consolidation, or a “Facto...

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...on interval or a list of items presented 1 s apart and followed by a 5-s retention interval. Of course, different mechanisms could nonetheless underpin long-term and short-term recency effects (e.g., =-=Davelaar, Goshen-Gottstein, Ashkenazi, Haarmann, & Usher, 2005-=-; Davelaar, Haarmann, Goshen-Gottstein, & Usher, 2006); we address this debate below. Second, power-law forgetting would be consistent with scale similarity in memory performance over time. If forgett...

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...oretical claim of SIMPLE is that a separate trace is stored in memory for each episode of item occurrence (cf. Hintzman, 1976, 1986). This distinguishes SIMPLE from several other recent models (e.g., =-=Farrell & Lewandowsky, 2002-=-) while aligning it with numerous previous exemplar models of memory. Indeed, according to SIMPLE it is precisely location along the temporal dimension of memory that keeps traces of items apart. Ther...

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...y to be recalled in approximately the correct location. This tendency, like serial position curves, is evident across timescales varying over many orders of magnitude, from milliseconds to weeks (see =-=Estes, 1972-=-; Huttenlocher et al., 1992; Nairne, 1991, 1992; Neath & Brown, 2006; see G. D. A. Brown et al., 2000, for a summary). Further evidence comes from the study of memory for relative recency. 1 Power-law...

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...mblance to several hitherto disparate approaches, including Murdock’s (1960) distinctiveness theory; ratio-rule models of memory retrieval (e.g., Baddeley, 1976; Bjork & Whitten, 1974; Crowder, 1976; =-=Glenberg & Swanson, 1986-=-); nontemporal exemplar models (Nosofsky, 1986, 1992); the feature model (e.g., Nairne, 1990); earlier temporal distinctiveness and oscillatorbased models of memory (e.g., G. D. A. Brown, Preece, & Hu...

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...is continued attention arises partly because of the success of trace-decay/rehearsal models in accounting for item duration effects (e.g., Baddeley, Thomson, & Buchanan, 1975; but see, e.g., G. D. A. =-=Brown & Hulme, 1995-=-; Neath, Bireta, & Surprenant, 2003) and partly because of the lack of an adequate interference-based account of the relevant shortterm memory phenomena (i.e., an account of the type we are attempting...

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...ometimes reduced (Wallace, 1965), with memory for subsequent items being impaired when the distinctive item is particularly attention demanding (Ellis, Detterman, Runcie, McCarver, & Craig, 1971; see =-=Fabiani & Donchin, 1995-=-, for discussion of the possible role of encoding in the von Restorff effect). Grouping Effects: Hitch et al. (1996) Data (Isolate) Data (Control) Model (Isolate) Model (Control) 0 2 4 6 8 10 Serial P...

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.... A detailed description of all of the findings that have been taken to support a short-term/long-term memory distinction (for comprehensive statements, see Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Baddeley, 1976; =-=Glanzer, 1972-=-; Izawa, 1999) must be the subject of a separate article. We note in particular that arguments for separate stores are buttressed by many other methodologies that we have not considered in the present...

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... theoretical work here. The approach can also offer a perspective on alternating list effects, whereby dissimilar items suffer little or not at all by being sandwiched between confusable items (e.g., =-=Baddeley, 1968-=-; Henson et al., 1996; but see Farrell & Lewandowsky, 2003). According to SIMPLE, the extent to which items from one class will benefit in serial recall from being alternated with items from another c...

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..., 1991; Sehulster, 1989). More generally, the size of the recency effect appears to depend on the log of the ratio between the interpresentation interval between the items and the retention interval (=-=Glenberg et al., 1980-=-; Nairne, Neath, Serra, & Byun, 1997), at least to a remarkably close degree (see also Baddeley, 1976; Bjork & Whitten, 1974). Empirically, the ratio rule means that it would be impossible for an obse...

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...y, and some recognition memory tasks (for reviews, see Crowder, 1976; Lansdale, 1998; McGeoch & Irion, 1952; Murdock, 1974). Serial position effects are also found in retrieval from long-term memory (=-=Baddeley & Hitch, 1977-=-; Bjork & Whitten, 1974; Glenberg, Bradley, Kraus, & Renzaglia, 1983; Healy, Havas, & Parker, 2000; Healy & Parker, 2001; Nairne, 1991; Pinto & Baddeley, 1991; Roediger & Crowder, 1976; Watkins, Neath...

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...ne, and are progressively less likely to be recalled in a position away from the correct one as the distance between target (correct) position and recalled position increases (see, e.g., Estes, 1972; =-=Healy, 1974-=-; Henson, Norris, Page, & Baddeley, 1996; Nairne, 1991, 1992). We first consider the simple case where participants are presented with a list of items in serial order and then at recall are given the ...

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...ws, see Crowder, 1976; Lansdale, 1998; McGeoch & Irion, 1952; Murdock, 1974). Serial position effects are also found in retrieval from long-term memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1977; Bjork & Whitten, 1974; =-=Glenberg, Bradley, Kraus, & Renzaglia, 1983-=-; Healy, Havas, & Parker, 2000; Healy & Parker, 2001; Nairne, 1991; Pinto & Baddeley, 1991; Roediger & Crowder, 1976; Watkins, Neath, & Sechler, 1989). Serial position effects in rather different task...

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...onal attributes is not assumed by the perturbation model to be a function of the passage of time alone; rather, successive retrieval attempts will increase the probability or number of perturbations (=-=Estes, 1997-=-). In SIMPLE, in contrast, forgetting may occur (all other things being equal) whether or not successive retrievals have intervened. SIMPLE does not incorporate the dual-trace assumptions that form an...

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...McGeoch & Irion, 1952). SIMPLE provides a formalization of the notion of distinctiveness that derives from categorization theory. How does SIMPLE relate to specific extant models of shortterm memory (=-=Burgess, 1995-=-; Burgess & Hitch, 1996, 1999; Henson, 1998b; Henson et al., 1996; Houghton, 1990, 1994; Page & Norris, 1998)? There are clear points of contrast between SIMPLE and almost all previous models. First, ...

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..., 1952). SIMPLE provides a formalization of the notion of distinctiveness that derives from categorization theory. How does SIMPLE relate to specific extant models of shortterm memory (Burgess, 1995; =-=Burgess & Hitch, 1996-=-, 1999; Henson, 1998b; Henson et al., 1996; Houghton, 1990, 1994; Page & Norris, 1998)? There are clear points of contrast between SIMPLE and almost all previous models. First, SIMPLE makes the claim ...

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... (e.g., G. D. A. Brown, Preece, & Hulme, 2000; Burgess & Hitch, 1999; Neath, 1993a, 1993b); and, mores540 generally, models that place time at the heart of memory and learning (e.g., Gallistel, 1990; =-=Gallistel & Gibbon, 2002-=-). The majority of the article is devoted to applications of the model to a number of serial recall and free recall phenomena. Scale-Similar Effects in Memory and Identification The account that we de...

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.... Wickens, Born, & Allen, 1963). The greater the change in the nature of the material is, the greater is the release from PI. The effect appears to be due to retrieval rather than encoding processes (=-=Gardiner, Craik, & Birtwistle, 1972-=-). Release from PI also occurs when the time interval separating successive to-be-recalled items is increased sufficiently (Loess & Waugh, 1967; Peterson & Gentile, 1965), consistent with the idea tha...

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...ms is increased sufficiently (Loess & Waugh, 1967; Peterson & Gentile, 1965), consistent with the idea that the temporaldiscrimination problem becomes easier under such circumstances (Baddeley, 1976; =-=Baddeley & Scott, 1971-=-). Because there is a large literature on release from PI, we focused on SIMPLE’s ability to explain just three basic phenomena. These are (a) the release from PI after a shift in the nature of the ma...

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... different timescales. We do, however, suggest that there are striking continuities in memory over different timescales and that these scale similarities need to be addressed by models of memory (see =-=Chater & Brown, 1999-=-). First, effects of serial position are often suggestive of scalesimilar mechanisms. Bowed serial position curves, showing reduced memory for midseries items, are obtained in free recall, serial lear...

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...rence, during retrieval of a given item from the target list, from items that were presented, rehearsed, or recalled in the same within-list position on the previous trial during serial recall (e.g., =-=Conrad, 1960-=-; Estes, 1991). Can SIMPLE account for these data? Several models of memory invoke hierarchical representations, in which items’ positions along different dimensions, typically positional rather than ...

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...e. Similar effects are seen in data from grouping experiments, where items at the beginning and end of each group are better recalled, echoing the primacy and recency effects for the list as a whole (=-=Frankish, 1985-=-, 1989; Ryan, 1969a, 1969b; Hitch, Burgess, Towse, & Culpin, 1996). In recognition memory, serial position effects appear similar over a range of timescales when rehearsal is discouraged (Wright et al...

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...edassociate learning are distinguished from absolute judgment, in which sensory magnitude judgments are given without feedback, although an associative component may be involved in absolute judgment (=-=Haubensak, 1992-=-; Wedell, 1996; but see Parducci, 1992).sFigure 2. Serial position curves obtained in absolute identification experiments. A: Curve analogous to recency effect. B: Curve analogous to primacy effect. C...

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...of verbal items is reduced when the items are phonologically confusable, with the additional errors being predominantly movement errors (transpositions; see Baddeley & Ecob, 1970; Conrad, 1964, 1967; =-=Estes, 1973-=-; Healy, 1975). Second, we examine the tendency for items recalled in the wrong serial position nevertheless to be recalled in positions close to the correct one. An additional question is whether ext...

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...greatly affect performance on a subsequent trial. Henson (1996) found that over 40% of intrusion errors in serial recall came from the list that immediately preceded the list to be recalled (see also =-=Estes, 1991-=-). Furthermore, many researchers have claimed that in the absence of PI, little or no forgetting will occur (Keppel & Underwood, 1962; Turvey, Brick, & Osborn, 1970; Underwood, 1957). Here we use SIMP...

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... offer a perspective on alternating list effects, whereby dissimilar items suffer little or not at all by being sandwiched between confusable items (e.g., Baddeley, 1968; Henson et al., 1996; but see =-=Farrell & Lewandowsky, 2003-=-). According to SIMPLE, the extent to which items from one class will benefit in serial recall from being alternated with items from another class will depend on withinclass and between-class proximit...

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...ms is reduced when the items are phonologically confusable, with the additional errors being predominantly movement errors (transpositions; see Baddeley & Ecob, 1970; Conrad, 1964, 1967; Estes, 1973; =-=Healy, 1975-=-). Second, we examine the tendency for items recalled in the wrong serial position nevertheless to be recalled in positions close to the correct one. An additional question is whether extended primacy...

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...trace models such as that of Logan (1988) or Anderson, Fincham, and Douglass (1999) and that a position-from-start dimension may be important in accounting for cross-list transfer effects (see, e.g., =-=Chen, Swartz, & Terrace, 1997-=-; Hitch & Fastame, 2005). We postpone detailed consideration. Response suppression mechanisms, and their role in explaining errors in recall in short-term memory paradigms, are now quite well understo...

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...eater encoding will occur for items that are somehow surprising or unexpected in a given context, and the tendency for retrievability of primacy items to increase in absolute terms after a delay (see =-=Bjork, 2001-=-, for a review) may point to the need for inhibitory or encoding mechanisms not yet incorporated into SIMPLE. Similar encoding-levelsconsiderations arise in the context of explanations of distributed ...

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...orgetting due to trace decay. However, a challenge comes from recent claims that the absolute amount of time since item learning, not just ratios of temporal intervals, influences recall probability (=-=Cowan, Saults, & Nugent, 1997-=-; see also Nairne et al., 1997). This challenge is therefore also of considerable significance not only to the SIMPLE temporal discrimination model but to any model that claims that the passage of abs...

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...nguish separate repetitions of an item and locate each occurrence separately (Hintzman & Block, 1971) and the fact that recency and frequency can generally although not always be distinguished (e.g., =-=Flexser & Bower, 1974-=-; Morton, 1968). Note that the “separate traces” issue is separate from the question of whether distinctive temporal– contextual tagging information is stored in memory—it is possible for item-to-cont...

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...een whether the relevant dimension is amplitude or weight (e.g., Murdock, 1960), frequency (e.g., Neath, Brown, McCormack, Chater, & Freeman, 2006; Stewart, Brown, & Chater, 2005), line length (e.g., =-=Bower, 1971-=-; Kent & Lamberts, 2005; Lacouture & Marley, 2004), area (Eriksen & Hake, 1957), position along a semantic continuum (DeSoto & Bosley, 1962; Pollio & Deitchman, 1964, cited in Bower, 1971), spatial po...

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...for inhibitory or encoding mechanisms not yet incorporated into SIMPLE. Similar encoding-levelsconsiderations arise in the context of explanations of distributed and massed practice effects (e.g., K. =-=Braun & Rubin, 1998-=-). A further issue concerns learning and practice. In the present article, we have applied SIMPLE almost exclusively to cases of single-trial learning, where one presentation of a list of nonrepeated ...

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..., 1971), or numerosity (Neath et al., 2006). Of particular relevance to the present model, the same serial position curves are found when the stimuli to be identified are temporal durations (G. D. A. =-=Brown, McCormack, Smith, & Stewart, 2005-=-; Elvevåg, Brown, McCormack, Vousden, & Goldberg, 2004; Lacouture, Grondin, & Mori, 2001; McCormack, Brown, Maylor, Richardson, & Darby, 2002). The observed serial position curves are typically near-s...

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...le for item-to-context associations to be stored together in a single memory matrix (e.g., G. D. A. Brown et al., 2000) or for the same associations to be formed but stored separately (e.g., G. D. A. =-=Brown, Vousden, McCormack, & Hulme, 1999-=-; Vousden, Brown, & Harley, 2000). The arguments motivating SIMPLE argue for the latter possibility. Relation to Other Models The resulting model has affinities with a number of previous theoretical a...

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...articularly isolated item is sometimes increased, and sometimes reduced (Wallace, 1965), with memory for subsequent items being impaired when the distinctive item is particularly attention demanding (=-=Ellis, Detterman, Runcie, McCarver, & Craig, 1971-=-; see Fabiani & Donchin, 1995, for discussion of the possible role of encoding in the von Restorff effect). Grouping Effects: Hitch et al. (1996) Data (Isolate) Data (Control) Model (Isolate) Model (C...

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...d & Ebbesen, 1991, 1997), forgetting may be seen as scale independent. 1 Many researchers have, however, claimed that forgetting curves are not best described by a power law (for recent examples, see =-=Chechile, 2006-=-; Rubin, Hinton, & Wenzel, 1999; T. D. Wickens, 1999; cf. Myung, Kim, & Pitt, 2000); we explore the functional form of forgetting curves through simulation below. Third, the proportion of errors produ...

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...). Of particular relevance to the present model, the same serial position curves are found when the stimuli to be identified are temporal durations (G. D. A. Brown, McCormack, Smith, & Stewart, 2005; =-=Elvevåg, Brown, McCormack, Vousden, & Goldberg, 2004-=-; Lacouture, Grondin, & Mori, 2001; McCormack, Brown, Maylor, Richardson, & Darby, 2002). The observed serial position curves are typically near-symmetrical when the stimuli to be identified are space...

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... long lists and will survive even when active encoding is prevented. Consistent with this prediction, constraining participants to rehearse only the current item reduces but does not abolish primacy (=-=Glanzer & Meinzer, 1967-=-; Modigliani & Hedges, 1987; Tan & Ward, 2000). More generally, primacy effects still occur when rehearsal is limited by the nature of the task (Tzeng, 1973; Watkins et al., 1989; Wixted & McDowell, 1...

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...hat short-term memory for the serial order of verbal items is reduced when the items are phonologically confusable, with the additional errors being predominantly movement errors (transpositions; see =-=Baddeley & Ecob, 1970-=-; Conrad, 1964, 1967; Estes, 1973; Healy, 1975). Second, we examine the tendency for items recalled in the wrong serial position nevertheless to be recalled in positions close to the correct one. An a...

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...by a 5-s retention interval. Of course, different mechanisms could nonetheless underpin long-term and short-term recency effects (e.g., Davelaar, Goshen-Gottstein, Ashkenazi, Haarmann, & Usher, 2005; =-=Davelaar, Haarmann, Goshen-Gottstein, & Usher, 2006-=-); we address this debate below. Second, power-law forgetting would be consistent with scale similarity in memory performance over time. If forgetting does follow a power law, then the probability of ...

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...MPLE does not incorporate rehearsal, it should be able to account for primacy effects that remain when the changes in temporal distinctiveness that are induced by rehearsal are removed or controlled (=-=Brodie & Prytulak, 1975-=-; G. D. A. Brown et al., 2000; Murdock & Metcalfe, 1978; Rundus, 1971; Tan & Ward, BROWN, NEATH, AND CHATER 2000). Even random rehearsal will tend to “telescope” the effective temporal distances of it...

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...ation mirror temporal isolation effects in free recall, which occur when a list item that is either preceded or followed by a relatively long temporal gap at presentation is better recalled (G. D. A. =-=Brown, Morin, & Lewandowsky, 2006-=-). Temporal isolation effects in memory therefore appear consistent with the idea that memory retrieval in free recall is akin to discrimination and identification of items in terms of their position ...

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...of items are discriminable, identification performance may be almost unaffected when the spacing of items along the perceptual scale is increased by a constant factor (e.g., Alluisi & Sidorsky, 1958; =-=Eriksen & Hake, 1955-=-; Garner, 1962; Miller, 1956; Pollack, 1952; Shiffrin & Nosofsky, 1994). Scale similarity is also evident in the A TEMPORAL RATIO MODEL OF MEMORY 543 serial position effects obtained in absolute ident...

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...ock, 1960), frequency (e.g., Neath, Brown, McCormack, Chater, & Freeman, 2006; Stewart, Brown, & Chater, 2005), line length (e.g., Bower, 1971; Kent & Lamberts, 2005; Lacouture & Marley, 2004), area (=-=Eriksen & Hake, 1957-=-), position along a semantic continuum (DeSoto & Bosley, 1962; Pollio & Deitchman, 1964, cited in Bower, 1971), spatial position (Ebenholtz, 1963; Jensen, 1962), brightness (Bower, 1971), or numerosit...

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...vidence against the suggestion that the sole determinant of performance was the ratio of the betweenand within-pair gaps, and concluded that trace decay also played a role in forgetting (although see =-=Cowan, Saults, & Nugent, 2001-=-, for considerations similar to those adduced here). However, there are two ways in which a ratiolike model such as SIMPLE, in which there is no trace decay, could accommodate such a finding. First, a...

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...a considerable amount of evidence that PI is reduced by temporal separation both in AB-AD paradigms (Keppel, 1964; Underwood & Ekstrand, 1967; Underwood & Freund, 1968) and over shorter time periods (=-=Alin, 1968-=-; Kincaid & Wickens, 1970; Peterson & Gentile, 1965). Note that SIMPLE offers essentially the same explanation of time-based release from PI as was given for the ratio-rule-like phenomena and for the ...

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...ensions (e.g., temporal vs. nontemporal) may allow a multidimensional model to behave more or less episodically depending on the relative weight given to the episodic/temporal dimension (see G. D. A. =-=Brown & McCormack, 2006-=-; Humphreys, Bain, & Pike, 1989). Perturbation model. The perturbation model (PM) developed by Estes (1972, 1985, 1997) emphasizes the distortion in memories’ attribute values over time or over retrie...

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...ented trigram was enclosed by a red rectangle at test; Figure 21 shows only the conditions where the item was isolated at presentation but not retrieval (for similar results, see Bone & Goulet, 1968; =-=Cimbalo, Nowak, & Soderstrom, 1981-=-). We addressed the data with SIMPLE. The temporal position of items’ traces was set to the schedule of presentation; retrieval was assumed to commence after 0.1 s. Items were also represented along a...

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... Lamberts, 2005; Lacouture & Marley, 2004), area (Eriksen & Hake, 1957), position along a semantic continuum (DeSoto & Bosley, 1962; Pollio & Deitchman, 1964, cited in Bower, 1971), spatial position (=-=Ebenholtz, 1963-=-; Jensen, 1962), brightness (Bower, 1971), or numerosity (Neath et al., 2006). Of particular relevance to the present model, the same serial position curves are found when the stimuli to be identified...

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... 0.75 0.5 0.25 0 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0 A Data (Dissimilar Items) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Output Position similarity is low, separation of items along a temporal or positional dimension will be beneficial (see also =-=Farrell, 2006-=-). An important issue concerns the nature of the dimension used to represent within-list position. Because SIMPLE, like other exemplar models, assumes multidimensional memory representations, it can a...

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...s considerable empirical evidence that time is an important dimension underpinning memory organization and retrieval (e.g., Gallistel, 1990; see G. D. A. Brown & Chater, 2001, for a recent review and =-=Friedman, 2001-=-, for an alternative perspective). Much of this evidence is discussed below. The specific model we describe instantiates the analogy of a line of telephone poles developed by Crowder (1976) to illustr...

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...h & Irion, 1952; Murdock, 1974). Serial position effects are also found in retrieval from long-term memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1977; Bjork & Whitten, 1974; Glenberg, Bradley, Kraus, & Renzaglia, 1983; =-=Healy, Havas, & Parker, 2000-=-; Healy & Parker, 2001; Nairne, 1991; Pinto & Baddeley, 1991; Roediger & Crowder, 1976; Watkins, Neath, & Sechler, 1989). Serial position effects in rather different tasks, such as order reconstructio...

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...provided individual pairs of items are discriminable, identification performance may be almost unaffected when the spacing of items along the perceptual scale is increased by a constant factor (e.g., =-=Alluisi & Sidorsky, 1958-=-; Eriksen & Hake, 1955; Garner, 1962; Miller, 1956; Pollack, 1952; Shiffrin & Nosofsky, 1994). Scale similarity is also evident in the A TEMPORAL RATIO MODEL OF MEMORY 543 serial position effects obta...

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... not the seventh-presented trigram was enclosed by a red rectangle at test; Figure 21 shows only the conditions where the item was isolated at presentation but not retrieval (for similar results, see =-=Bone & Goulet, 1968-=-; Cimbalo, Nowak, & Soderstrom, 1981). We addressed the data with SIMPLE. The temporal position of items’ traces was set to the schedule of presentation; retrieval was assumed to commence after 0.1 s....

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...ble variations in degree of learning, interpresentation interval, time between trials, familiarity or meaningfulness of the material to be remembered, or individual differences in the learners (H. W. =-=Braun & Heymann, 1958-=-; McCrary & Hunter, 1953); this is the Hunter–McCrary Law. Here the shape of the error distribution in serial learning provides the observer with little or no evidence about the absolute level of perf...

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...al., 1998; Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984; Howard & Kahana, 2002). In its emphasis on the importance of a temporal dimension in serial recall, SIMPLE bears a family resemblance to the OSCAR model (G. D. A. =-=Brown & Vousden, 1998-=-; G. D. A. Brown et al., 1999, 2000; Maylor, Vousden, & Brown, 1999; Vousden & Brown, 1998; Vousden et al., 2000) and the Burgess and Hitch model (Burgess & Hitch, 1996, 1999; see also Burgess & Hitch...

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..., & Freeman, 2006; Stewart, Brown, & Chater, 2005), line length (e.g., Bower, 1971; Kent & Lamberts, 2005; Lacouture & Marley, 2004), area (Eriksen & Hake, 1957), position along a semantic continuum (=-=DeSoto & Bosley, 1962-=-; Pollio & Deitchman, 1964, cited in Bower, 1971), spatial position (Ebenholtz, 1963; Jensen, 1962), brightness (Bower, 1971), or numerosity (Neath et al., 2006). Of particular relevance to the presen...

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...fsky, 1986) to serial and free recall. There is considerable empirical evidence that time is an important dimension underpinning memory organization and retrieval (e.g., Gallistel, 1990; see G. D. A. =-=Brown & Chater, 2001-=-, for a recent review and Friedman, 2001, for an alternative perspective). Much of this evidence is discussed below. The specific model we describe instantiates the analogy of a line of telephone pole...

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...bolition of primacy in classic hippocampal amnesia can be understood in terms of a single-process temporal distinctiveness model when the pattern of rehearsal is taken into account (see also G. D. A. =-=Brown & Lamberts, 2003-=-). A particularly relevant challenge to a unitary view comes from recent claims that long-term and short-term recency effects reflect the operation of different mechanisms (Davelaar et al., 2005, 2006...

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...quence of making each individual trace less isolated and hence less retrievable; the summed temporal extension of an item’s rehearsals provides a more complete (albeit more complex) account (G. D. A. =-=Brown & Morin, 2006-=-). The present model simplifies considerably by ignoring such considerations and can perhaps best be viewed as a model of rehearsal-free memory performance. The aim has been to understand the operatio...

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...vely isolated regions of psychological space. The notion that “crowded” materials will be remembered less well than “isolated” materials has a long history A TEMPORAL RATIO MODEL OF MEMORY 567 (e.g., =-=Buxton & Newman, 1940-=-) and has often, but not always, been taken to support some form of intraserial interference similar to the type explored in this article (McGeoch & Irion, 1952). SIMPLE provides a formalization of th...

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...effects still occur when rehearsal is limited by the nature of the task (Tzeng, 1973; Watkins et al., 1989; Wixted & McDowell, 1989; Wright et al., 1990) and indeed in animals without language (e.g., =-=Harper, McLean, & Dalrymple-Alford, 1993-=-). Rundus (1971) interpreted the evidence as consistent with the idea that other factors such as the “distinctiveness of the initial study items” (p. 65) are relevant. However, SIMPLE (in contrast to ...