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...e simpler model (Spiegelhalter et al. 2002). We constructed the models using WinBUGS, which is a software package that uses Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods to fit Bayesian statistical models (=-=Lunn et al. 2000-=-); this code is available in Appendix 3; Table A1 presents the DIC values of models 1 – 3. For the results, the reported parameters are after 10,000 iterations, then followed by a further 10,000 updat...

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... identical individuals in constant environments has focused on unicellular systems (Davidson and Surette 2008; Viney and Reece 2013). In many of these systems there is variability in gene expression (=-=Maamar et al. 2007-=-), often affecting whole gene networks, which if manifest as phenotypic variance may allow selection to act on trait variance (Viney and Reece 2013). The effect of mutations on trait variance (as well...

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...te much working demonstrating different degrees of canalization of different phenotypes, the significance of different degrees of phenotypic variation among genotypes has largely not been considered (=-=Gibson and Dworkin 2004-=-). Theoretical studies have shown how selection can change phenotypic variance (e.g. Gillespie 1974; Hill and Zhang 2004) and mechanistically phenotypic variance can be genetically controlled, changin...

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...on can change phenotypic variance (e.g. Gillespie 1974; Hill and Zhang 2004) and mechanistically phenotypic variance can be genetically controlled, changing the phenotypic robustness of a population (=-=Hermisson and Wagner 2004-=-). Much of the empirical work describing the molecular and genetic mechanism of phenotypic variance of genetically identical individuals in constant environments has focused on unicellular systems (Da...

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...tions that affect the developmental cell lineage (which in wildtype is essentially invariant among individuals) are incompletely penetrant, i.e. genetically identical individuals vary phenotypically (=-=Horvitz and Sulston 1980-=-; Braendle and Felix 2008; Braendle et al. 2010). In this system, there is a molecular understanding of how incomplete penetrance of C. elegans phenotypes occurs in certain traits. The specification ...

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...nse, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. makes the link between environmental variability, fitness variance and mean fitness (=-=Gillespie 1974-=-). Bet-hedging strategies are those that minimize fitness variation across generations in the face of environmental variation. Thus, when comparing phenotypically invariant and variant genotypes, an i...

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... variance may allow selection to act on trait variance (Viney and Reece 2013). The effect of mutations on trait variance (as well as on trait values) has been observed in multicellular organisms too (=-=Dunn and Fraser 1958-=-). For example, wild-type mice have 18–19 whiskers, but the Tabby mutation results in fewer whiskers (mean 12) and a greater variance in whisker number (range 8– 16) (Dunn and Fraser 1958). There are ...

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...n a generation (because this effectively decreases the variance in fitness across generations) with these approaches being considered conservative and diversified bet-hedging strategies respectively (=-=Starrfelt and Kokko 2012-=-). Conservative and diversified bet-hedging strategies are extremes along a continuum and both strategies can occur together because they are not mutually exclusive (Starrfelt and Kokko 2012). To cons...

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...es of phenotypic variation among genotypes has largely not been considered (Gibson and Dworkin 2004). Theoretical studies have shown how selection can change phenotypic variance (e.g. Gillespie 1974; =-=Hill and Zhang 2004-=-) and mechanistically phenotypic variance can be genetically controlled, changing the phenotypic robustness of a population (Hermisson and Wagner 2004). Much of the empirical work describing the molec...

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... that this variance may be due to the genotypes’ different evolutionary histories. Consistent with this notion is the fact that this phenotypic variance was plastic between the two food environments (=-=Viney and Diaz 2012-=-). Specifically, we find that the absolute degree of phenotypic variance of each of the lines changes as the food environment changes. However, each isogenic line’s among-individual variation is simil...

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...f each line were individually introduced to food (day 0), with five individuals for each food source. Worms grew into adult hermaphrodites, which were transferred every other day to NGM fresh plates (=-=Hope 1999-=-) for their reproductive life. Egg-containing plates (from which adult hermaphrodites had been removed) were maintained for 48 hours, when the number of viable progeny were counted. We conducted the o...

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...ation (Flatt 2005). We have found that the lines differ in their variability in lifetime fecundity, which is consistent with some lines being strongly canalized for this trait whereas others are not (=-=Baer 2008-=-; Braendle et al. 2010). This view is then tacit about the adaptive value, if any, of this. Other studies have shown how among individual, within genotype phenotypic variance can occur (e.g. Horvitz a...