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...licitation” because the elicitation technique prevails in terms of illocutionary force in that uptake is clearly expected. Uptake We have drawn on speech act theory to introduce the notion of uptake (=-=Austin, 1962-=-, p. 117; see also Levinson, 1983; Mey, 1993) into the error treatment sequence. Whereas uptake has been defined in other work as “what learners claim to have learned from a particular lesson” (Sliman...

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...tion technique prevails in terms of illocutionary force in that uptake is clearly expected. Uptake We have drawn on speech act theory to introduce the notion of uptake (Austin, 1962, p. 117; see also =-=Levinson, 1983-=-; Mey, 1993) into the error treatment sequence. Whereas uptake has been defined in other work as “what learners claim to have learned from a particular lesson” (Slimani, 1992; see also Allwright, 1984...

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..., involving, on the one hand, ample opportunities for student output and, on the other, the provision of useful and consistent feedback from teachers and peers (Allen, Swain, Harley, & Cummins, 1990; =-=Swain, 1985-=-, 1988). 2. Subject-matter teaching does not on its own provide adequate language teaching; language used to convey subject matter needs to be highlighted in ways that make certain features more salie...

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...69), as corrective feedback by second language teachers (e.g., Fanselow, 1977), and as focus-on-form in more recent work in classroom second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Lightbown & Spada, 1990; =-=Long, 1991-=-). The different labels also reflect different research concerns and different approaches to data collection (Schachter, 1991). Small wonder then that the neophyte second language (L2) teacher finds s...

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...., Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986; Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; Long & Porter, 1985; Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; Varonis & Gass, 1985; see =-=Pica, 1994-=-, for a review of this research) and, more recently, in child native speaker and learner dyads (Oliver, 1995). Drawing on van Lier’s (1988) terminological distinction between conversational and didact...

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... case of recasts, classroom learners, whether they are given the opportunity to repeat or not, are less actively engaged insofar as there is little evidence that they can actually notice the gap (see =-=Schmidt & Frota, 1986-=-) between their initial use of nontarget forms and the teacher’s reformulation, given the ambiguity of recasts from the classroom learner’s perspective. It is likely the case that teachers are relucta...

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...nt speakers react to learners’ language errors takes on many guises depending on the disciplinary orientation of the researcher. It has been examined in terms of negative evidence by linguists (e.g., =-=White, 1989-=-), as repair by discourse analysts (e.g., Kasper, 1985), as negative feedback by psychologists (e.g., Annett, 1969), as corrective feedback by second language teachers (e.g., Fanselow, 1977), and as f...

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...wo reasons. First, they allow opportunities for learners to automatize the retrieval of target language knowledge that already exists in some form (e.g., as declarative knowledge; see Hulstijn, 1990; =-=McLaughlin, 1987-=-, 1990). Second, when repair is generated by students, the latter draw on their own resources and thus actively confront errors in ways that may lead to revisions of their hypotheses about the target ...

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...ptualized in the extensive body of research designed to examine interaction in adult native speaker and learner dyads (e.g., Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986; Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; =-=Long & Porter, 1985-=-; Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; Varonis & Gass, 1985; see Pica, 1994, for a review of this research) and, more recently, in child native speaker and learne...

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...d experimental designs with pre- and posttests and explicit teaching of a specific feature of the target language. Those studies conducted in intensive ESL classes in Quebec (Spada & Lightbown, 1993; =-=White, 1991-=-; White, Spada, Lightbown, & Ranta, 1991) have examined the effect of a combination of proactive and reactive approaches to focus-on-form, that is, both form-focused instructional materials and feedba...

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...o when students make errors in classrooms that are intended to lead to communicative competence. There are, however, a number of good state-of-the-art discussions of error treatment in classroom SLA (=-=Allwright & Bailey, 1991-=-; Chaudron, 1988; DeKeyser, 1993). These writers have all borrowed the framing questions used by Hendrickson (1978) in one of the first comprehensive reviews of the issue of error correction in the cl...

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...revails in terms of illocutionary force in that uptake is clearly expected. Uptake We have drawn on speech act theory to introduce the notion of uptake (Austin, 1962, p. 117; see also Levinson, 1983; =-=Mey, 1993-=-) into the error treatment sequence. Whereas uptake has been defined in other work as “what learners claim to have learned from a particular lesson” (Slimani, 1992; see also Allwright, 1984), we are u...

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...is generated by students, the latter draw on their own resources and thus actively confront errors in ways that may lead to revisions of their hypotheses about the target language (Pica et al., 1989; =-=Swain, 1993-=-, 1995). In the case of recasts, classroom learners, whether they are given the opportunity to repeat or not, are less actively engaged insofar as there is little evidence that they can actually notic...

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...ker and learner dyads (e.g., Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986; Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; Long & Porter, 1985; Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; =-=Varonis & Gass, 1985-=-; see Pica, 1994, for a review of this research) and, more recently, in child native speaker and learner dyads (Oliver, 1995). Drawing on van Lier’s (1988) terminological distinction between conversat...

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...ntensive ESL classes in Quebec (Spada & Lightbown, 1993; White, 1991; White, Spada, Lightbown, & Ranta, 1991) have examined the effect of a combination of proactive and reactive approaches to focus-on-form, that is, both form-focused instructional materials and feedback on error, and thus shed no light on the effectiveness of error correction on its own. Other studies have dealt with feedback exclusively, using a highly controlled experimental approach. In Carroll, Roberge, and Swain (1992), adult subjects were trained and given feedback (or not) on two rules of suffixation in French, whereas Carroll and Swain (1993) investigated the effect of different types of feedback on the learning of the dative alternation rule in English, Corrective Feedback and Learner Uptake 39 also by adults. It is difficult to know just what relevance the findings of these studies have for the treatment of learner errors during communicative interaction in school settings, particularly with younger learners. One quasi-experimental study that examined the effect of error correction is that by DeKeyser (1993). The study involved two French as a second language high school classes in Belgium. The experimental treatments lasted a f...

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...teraction in adult native speaker and learner dyads (e.g., Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986; Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; Long & Porter, 1985; Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989; =-=Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987-=-; Varonis & Gass, 1985; see Pica, 1994, for a review of this research) and, more recently, in child native speaker and learner dyads (Oliver, 1995). Drawing on van Lier’s (1988) terminological distinc...

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...nsive body of research designed to examine interaction in adult native speaker and learner dyads (e.g., Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986; Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; Long & Porter, 1985; =-=Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989-=-; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; Varonis & Gass, 1985; see Pica, 1994, for a review of this research) and, more recently, in child native speaker and learner dyads (Oliver, 1995). Drawing on van Lier’s...

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...and the didactic functions of negotiation parallels the distinction found in the literature between genuine and pseudorequests (Spada & Fröhlich, 1995) and between referential and display questions (=-=Long & Sato, 1983-=-). 3. A further example of the didactic function of negotiation—where a teacher understands her students’ intended meaning but does not accept the nontarget forms used to encode that meaning—has been ...

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...rent labels also reflect different research concerns and different approaches to data collection (Schachter, 1991). Small wonder then that the neophyte second language (L2) teacher finds so little in the research literature to help deal with the very practical issue of what to do when students make errors in classrooms that are intended to lead to communicative competence. There are, however, a number of good state-of-the-art discussions of error treatment in classroom SLA (Allwright & Bailey, 1991; Chaudron, 1988; DeKeyser, 1993). These writers have all borrowed the framing questions used by Hendrickson (1978) in one of the first comprehensive reviews of the issue of error correction in the classroom; that is, 1. Should learners’ errors be corrected? 2. When should learners’ errors be corrected? 3. Which errors should be corrected? 4. How should errors be corrected? 5. Who should do the correcting? Nearly 20 years later, we are hardly any closer to knowing the answers to these deceptively simple questions. Some of the questions have received more attention than others. For example, the issue of whether errors should be corrected at all has been investigated under the rubric of “focus-on-form” in cl...

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...logists (e.g., Annett, 1969), as corrective feedback by second language teachers (e.g., Fanselow, 1977), and as focus-on-form in more recent work in classroom second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., =-=Lightbown & Spada, 1990-=-; Long, 1991). The different labels also reflect different research concerns and different approaches to data collection (Schachter, 1991). Small wonder then that the neophyte second language (L2) tea...

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...such research has involved experimental designs with pre- and posttests and explicit teaching of a specific feature of the target language. Those studies conducted in intensive ESL classes in Quebec (=-=Spada & Lightbown, 1993-=-; White, 1991; White, Spada, Lightbown, & Ranta, 1991) have examined the effect of a combination of proactive and reactive approaches to focus-on-form, that is, both form-focused instructional materia...

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...interaction. Yet the observation study of immersion classrooms described in Allen et al. (1990) revealed that error treatment was dealt with in “a confusing and unsystematic way” (p. 67). Only 19% of grammatical errors overall were corrected, and when correction did occur it generally appeared to be motivated by an “irritation” factor.The authors acknowledge a certain dilemma in this regard: If teachers do not correct errors, opportunities for students to make links between form and function are reduced; if teachers do correct errors, they risk interrupting the flow of communication. However, Lyster (1993, 1994) described a Grade 8 immersion teacher, Serge, who provided feedback to students, without breaking the flow of communication, in ways that pushed them to be more accurate and precise in their output. For example, after Serge asked students to comment on differences between formal and informal letters in French, the following exchange took place: St: La chose en bas. “The thing at the bottom.” Serge: La chose en bas! “The thing at the bottom!” St: La salutation finale. “The final closing.” What is particularly interesting about this simple example is that the student already knew the mor...

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...volved the analysis of transcripts from 11 teachers who had been videotaped while teaching the same lesson. Fanselow concluded from this study that there was much ambiguity in the signals given by teachers. Another small-scale study was reported by Kasper (1985) in which comparisons were made between the types of repair sequences in the form-focused phase and the communication-focused phase of one English lesson in a Danish high school. Kasper found that the teacher’s and students’ repair behavior differed depending on the communicative focus of the lesson. Of the larger scale investigations, Chaudron (1977, 1986, 1988) is of particular relevance to the present study. He observed three French immersion teachers (Grades 8 and 9) teaching both subject-matter and French language arts classes at two different times in the school year. From the analysis of the transcripts he devised an intricate model of the error correction process that allows comparisons to be made between types of teacher reaction to error moves and student correction moves. The focus of his study, however, was on the priorities of teachers in terms of the types of errors (morphological, syntactic, content, etc.) that they focused...

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...s in classrooms that are intended to lead to communicative competence. There are, however, a number of good state-of-the-art discussions of error treatment in classroom SLA (Allwright & Bailey, 1991; =-=Chaudron, 1988-=-; DeKeyser, 1993). These writers have all borrowed the framing questions used by Hendrickson (1978) in one of the first comprehensive reviews of the issue of error correction in the classroom; that is...

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... 16) St: Appelez la meterologue. [Error-phonological] T3: Non. Reprends-toi. Me-te-o-ro-logue. Dis-le. [FB-explicit] Finally, there were a few instances of elicitation occurring with metalinguistic feedback, as in the following example: (13) (T5—Science—Mar. 28) St: Il habiter. [Error-grammatical] T5: Pas il habiter, il . . . [FB-elicitation] This was coded as “elicitation” because the elicitation technique prevails in terms of illocutionary force in that uptake is clearly expected. Uptake We have drawn on speech act theory to introduce the notion of uptake (Austin, 1962, p. 117; see also Levinson, 1983; Mey, 1993) into the error treatment sequence. Whereas uptake has been defined in other work as “what learners claim to have learned from a particular lesson” (Slimani, 1992; see also Allwright, 1984), we are using the term in a very different sense. Uptake in our model refers to a student’s utterance that immediately follows the teacher’s feedback and that constitutes a reaction in some way to the teacher’s intention to draw attention to some aspect of the student’s initial utterance (this overall intention is clear to the student although the teacher’s specific linguistic focus may not be)....

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... (Pica et al., 1989, p. 65). Indeed, this conversational function of negotiation, namely, the negotiation of meaning, has often been considered to be an essential feature of immersion pedagogy (e.g., =-=Genesee, 1987-=-; Met, 1994; Rebuffot, 1993; Tardif, 1991). On the other hand, the didactic function of negotiation involves what we consider to be the “negotiation of form,” namely, the provision of corrective feedb...

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...olliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; Varonis & Gass, 1985; see Pica, 1994, for a review of this research) and, more recently, in child native speaker and learner dyads (=-=Oliver, 1995-=-). Drawing on van Lier’s (1988) terminological distinction between conversational and didactic repair, one may distinguish between two functions of negotiation, both of which have a role to play in L2...

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... Levinson, 1983; Mey, 1993) into the error treatment sequence. Whereas uptake has been defined in other work as “what learners claim to have learned from a particular lesson” (Slimani, 1992; see also =-=Allwright, 1984-=-), we are using the term in a very different sense. Uptake in our model refers to a student’s utterance that immediately follows the teacher’s feedback and that constitutes a reaction in some way to t...

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... comprehensible output is also required, involving, on the one hand, ample opportunities for student output and, on the other, the provision of useful and consistent feedback from teachers and peers (=-=Allen, Swain, Harley, & Cummins, 1990-=-; Swain, 1985, 1988). 2. Subject-matter teaching does not on its own provide adequate language teaching; language used to convey subject matter needs to be highlighted in ways that make certain featur...

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...that are intended to lead to communicative competence. There are, however, a number of good state-of-the-art discussions of error treatment in classroom SLA (Allwright & Bailey, 1991; Chaudron, 1988; =-=DeKeyser, 1993-=-). These writers have all borrowed the framing questions used by Hendrickson (1978) in one of the first comprehensive reviews of the issue of error correction in the classroom; that is, 1. Should lear...

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... in classroom second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Long, 1991). The different labels also reflect different research concerns and different approaches to data collection (=-=Schachter, 1991-=-). Small wonder then that the neophyte second language (L2) teacher finds so little in the research literature to help deal with the very practical issue of what to do when students make errors in cla...

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..., 1962, p. 117; see also Levinson, 1983; Mey, 1993) into the error treatment sequence. Whereas uptake has been defined in other work as “what learners claim to have learned from a particular lesson” (=-=Slimani, 1992-=-; see also Allwright, 1984), we are using the term in a very different sense. Uptake in our model refers to a student’s utterance that immediately follows the teacher’s feedback and that constitutes a...

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...d French first language (L1) classes at the Grade 3 and Grade 5 levels in the Montreal area. One part of the study focused on teaching strategies, including error correction practices. They found a significant difference between the L1 and L2 teachers’ correcting behavior: The French immersion teachers tended to explicitly correct the L2 learners more in the earlier grade than in the later grade, but the reverse pattern was found with the native speaker classes where more correction took place in the higher grade. Finally, in the context of adult French foreign language learning in Australia, Doughty (1994a) reported on a pilot study involving 6 hours of interaction in one class on three different occasions. She was interested in comparing L2 classroom learning to L1 acquisition in terms of the degree to which feedback is finely tuned. Student turns were coded for number of errors, and teacher turns were coded for the type of feedback (either clarification request, repetition, recast, expansion, or translation). The teacher provided feedback on 43% of the erroneous learner turns and tended to give feedback to learner turns that had only one error rather than those with many errors. The teacher ...

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...1989, p. 65). Indeed, this conversational function of negotiation, namely, the negotiation of meaning, has often been considered to be an essential feature of immersion pedagogy (e.g., Genesee, 1987; =-=Met, 1994-=-; Rebuffot, 1993; Tardif, 1991). On the other hand, the didactic function of negotiation involves what we consider to be the “negotiation of form,” namely, the provision of corrective feedback that en...

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...guists (e.g., White, 1989), as repair by discourse analysts (e.g., Kasper, 1985), as negative feedback by psychologists (e.g., Annett, 1969), as corrective feedback by second language teachers (e.g., =-=Fanselow, 1977-=-), and as focus-on-form in more recent work in classroom second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Long, 1991). The different labels also reflect different research concerns an...

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...g for at least two reasons. First, they allow opportunities for learners to automatize the retrieval of target language knowledge that already exists in some form (e.g., as declarative knowledge; see =-=Hulstijn, 1990-=-; McLaughlin, 1987, 1990). Second, when repair is generated by students, the latter draw on their own resources and thus actively confront errors in ways that may lead to revisions of their hypotheses...

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...the researcher. It has been examined in terms of negative evidence by linguists (e.g., White, 1989), as repair by discourse analysts (e.g., Kasper, 1985), as negative feedback by psychologists (e.g., =-=Annett, 1969-=-), as corrective feedback by second language teachers (e.g., Fanselow, 1977), and as focus-on-form in more recent work in classroom second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Lo...

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...ssroom discourse may be distinguished from negotiation as it has been conceptualized in the extensive body of research designed to examine interaction in adult native speaker and learner dyads (e.g., =-=Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986-=-; Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; Long & Porter, 1985; Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; Varonis & Gass, 1985; see Pica, 1994, for a review of this res...

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... into communicatively oriented classrooms with a predominantly experiential orientation (for a discussion of the analytic-experiential dimension in L2 teaching, see, e.g., Harley, 1993; Lyster, 1990; =-=Stern, 1990-=-, 1992). In the present study, we are concerned with corrective feedback as an analytic teaching strategy. We report on the types and distribution of corrective feedback moves and their relationship t...

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...ed? 4. How should errors be corrected? 5. Who should do the correcting? Nearly 20 years later, we are hardly any closer to knowing the answers to these deceptively simple questions. Some of the questions have received more attention than others. For example, the issue of whether errors should be corrected at all has been investigated under the rubric of “focus-on-form” in classroom SLA. Typically such research has involved experimental designs with pre- and posttests and explicit teaching of a specific feature of the target language. Those studies conducted in intensive ESL classes in Quebec (Spada & Lightbown, 1993; White, 1991; White, Spada, Lightbown, & Ranta, 1991) have examined the effect of a combination of proactive and reactive approaches to focus-on-form, that is, both form-focused instructional materials and feedback on error, and thus shed no light on the effectiveness of error correction on its own. Other studies have dealt with feedback exclusively, using a highly controlled experimental approach. In Carroll, Roberge, and Swain (1992), adult subjects were trained and given feedback (or not) on two rules of suffixation in French, whereas Carroll and Swain (1993) investigated the effect of dif...

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...cast. Many researchers have questioned whether the modifications entailed in recasts are perceptible to learners (e.g., Allwright & Bailey, 1991, p. 104; Calvé, 1992, p. 468; Chaudron, 1988, p. 145; =-=Netten, 1991-=-, p. 304). Indeed, we find it interesting that recasts are referred to as “échos” in French even though they are not identical replications of the student’s utterance; they are called echoes because ...

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...in more recent work in classroom second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Long, 1991). The different labels also reflect different research concerns and different approaches to data collection (Schachter, 1991). Small wonder then that the neophyte second language (L2) teacher finds so little in the research literature to help deal with the very practical issue of what to do when students make errors in classrooms that are intended to lead to communicative competence. There are, however, a number of good state-of-the-art discussions of error treatment in classroom SLA (Allwright & Bailey, 1991; Chaudron, 1988; DeKeyser, 1993). These writers have all borrowed the framing questions used by Hendrickson (1978) in one of the first comprehensive reviews of the issue of error correction in the classroom; that is, 1. Should learners’ errors be corrected? 2. When should learners’ errors be corrected? 3. Which errors should be corrected? 4. How should errors be corrected? 5. Who should do the correcting? Nearly 20 years later, we are hardly any closer to knowing the answers to these deceptively simple questions. Some of the questions have received more attention than others. For example, the...

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...rs (during subject-matter or language arts lessons). These teachers expressed a preference for correcting L2 errors in the language arts class and tended to correct more errors earlier in the school year than later. Chaudron also examined the relationship between different types of teacher repetitions and the rate of correct student responses that followed the 40 Roy Lyster and Leila Ranta feedback. He found that students were more likely to produce a correct response when the teacher reduced the learner’s utterance to isolate the error and added emphasis through a questioning tone or stress. Hamayan and Tucker (1980) examined specific aspects of teacher input provided to French immersion and French first language (L1) classes at the Grade 3 and Grade 5 levels in the Montreal area. One part of the study focused on teaching strategies, including error correction practices. They found a significant difference between the L1 and L2 teachers’ correcting behavior: The French immersion teachers tended to explicitly correct the L2 learners more in the earlier grade than in the later grade, but the reverse pattern was found with the native speaker classes where more correction took place in the higher grade. Final...

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...focus-on-form, into communicatively oriented classrooms with a predominantly experiential orientation (for a discussion of the analytic-experiential dimension in L2 teaching, see, e.g., Harley, 1993; =-=Lyster, 1990-=-; Stern, 1990, 1992). In the present study, we are concerned with corrective feedback as an analytic teaching strategy. We report on the types and distribution of corrective feedback moves and their r...

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... who consulted, if necessary, with a third researcher until agreement was reached. Following Doughty (1994a, 1994b), the transcripts were then imported into COALA (Computer Aided Linguistic Analysis, =-=Thornton & Pienemann, 1994-=-), which allowed for the final coding and quantification of the data using our user-defined coding categories, a detailed description of which now follows. English translations of the 18 sequences we ...

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...). Indeed, this conversational function of negotiation, namely, the negotiation of meaning, has often been considered to be an essential feature of immersion pedagogy (e.g., Genesee, 1987; Met, 1994; =-=Rebuffot, 1993-=-; Tardif, 1991). On the other hand, the didactic function of negotiation involves what we consider to be the “negotiation of form,” namely, the provision of corrective feedback that encourages self-re...

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... not on its own provide adequate language teaching; language used to convey subject matter needs to be highlighted in ways that make certain features more salient for L2 learners (Allen et al., 1990; =-=Harley, 1993-=-, 1994; Swain, 1985, 1988). Both of these suggestions are relevant to the issue of error treatment in that, first, producing comprehensible output entails the provision of useful and consistent feedba...

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...ssroom second language acquisition (SLA) (e.g., Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Long, 1991). The different labels also reflect different research concerns and different approaches to data collection (Schachter, 1991). Small wonder then that the neophyte second language (L2) teacher finds so little in the research literature to help deal with the very practical issue of what to do when students make errors in classrooms that are intended to lead to communicative competence. There are, however, a number of good state-of-the-art discussions of error treatment in classroom SLA (Allwright & Bailey, 1991; Chaudron, 1988; DeKeyser, 1993). These writers have all borrowed the framing questions used by Hendrickson (1978) in one of the first comprehensive reviews of the issue of error correction in the classroom; that is, 1. Should learners’ errors be corrected? 2. When should learners’ errors be corrected? 3. Which errors should be corrected? 4. How should errors be corrected? 5. Who should do the correcting? Nearly 20 years later, we are hardly any closer to knowing the answers to these deceptively simple questions. Some of the questions have received more attention than others. For example, the issue of whethe...

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... a role to play in L2 classrooms: a conversational function and a didactic function.2 On the one hand, the conversational function involves the negotiation of meaning, which has been characterized as “exchanges between learners and their interlocutors as they 42 Roy Lyster and Leila Ranta attempt to resolve communication breakdowns and to work toward mutual comprehension” (Pica et al., 1989, p. 65). Indeed, this conversational function of negotiation, namely, the negotiation of meaning, has often been considered to be an essential feature of immersion pedagogy (e.g., Genesee, 1987; Met, 1994; Rebuffot, 1993; Tardif, 1991). On the other hand, the didactic function of negotiation involves what we consider to be the “negotiation of form,” namely, the provision of corrective feedback that encourages self-repair involving accuracy and precision and not merely comprehensibility, which is in keeping with Swain’s (1985) notion of comprehensible output. In the preceding example, there is no evidence of communication breakdown, and it appears unlikely that the teacher has misunderstood the student’s intended meaning.3 The observation of Serge’s negotiation techniques led to the creation of a large databas...

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...ed from negotiation as it has been conceptualized in the extensive body of research designed to examine interaction in adult native speaker and learner dyads (e.g., Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986; =-=Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982-=-; Long & Porter, 1985; Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morgenthaler, 1989; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987; Varonis & Gass, 1985; see Pica, 1994, for a review of this research) and, more recently, in child nati...

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...d French first language (L1) classes at the Grade 3 and Grade 5 levels in the Montreal area. One part of the study focused on teaching strategies, including error correction practices. They found a significant difference between the L1 and L2 teachers’ correcting behavior: The French immersion teachers tended to explicitly correct the L2 learners more in the earlier grade than in the later grade, but the reverse pattern was found with the native speaker classes where more correction took place in the higher grade. Finally, in the context of adult French foreign language learning in Australia, Doughty (1994a) reported on a pilot study involving 6 hours of interaction in one class on three different occasions. She was interested in comparing L2 classroom learning to L1 acquisition in terms of the degree to which feedback is finely tuned. Student turns were coded for number of errors, and teacher turns were coded for the type of feedback (either clarification request, repetition, recast, expansion, or translation). The teacher provided feedback on 43% of the erroneous learner turns and tended to give feedback to learner turns that had only one error rather than those with many errors. The teacher ...

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...on many guises depending on the disciplinary orientation of the researcher. It has been examined in terms of negative evidence by linguists (e.g., White, 1989), as repair by discourse analysts (e.g., =-=Kasper, 1985-=-), as negative feedback by psychologists (e.g., Annett, 1969), as corrective feedback by second language teachers (e.g., Fanselow, 1977), and as focus-on-form in more recent work in classroom second l...

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...as others incorporate the grammatical or lexical modification into a sustained piece of discourse. Recasts also include translations in response to a student’s use of the L1. In our initial analysis (=-=Lyster & Ranta, 1995-=-) we included translation as a separate type of feedback but then combined this category with recasts for two reasons: First, translation occurred infrequently and, second, when it did occur, translat...

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...conversational function of negotiation, namely, the negotiation of meaning, has often been considered to be an essential feature of immersion pedagogy (e.g., Genesee, 1987; Met, 1994; Rebuffot, 1993; =-=Tardif, 1991-=-). On the other hand, the didactic function of negotiation involves what we consider to be the “negotiation of form,” namely, the provision of corrective feedback that encourages self-repair involving...