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...curity and surveillance (for example, in traffic, building, city, and airport monitoring and anti-terrorism), and health (for example, in-home monitoring). Sugihara and Gupta’s [53] and Yick et al.’s =-=[56]-=- reviews demonstrate the broad scope of sensor networks, the devices they can contain and how they are programmed. Sensor networks, which are formed from communicating nodes (devices with attached sen...

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...ntic Web promises a Web of annotated and linked data, a Web populated by autonomous and semi-autonomous software agents, agents that interpret, reason about and act on the annotations, links and data =-=[12, 49]-=-. Semantic Web technologies have the potential to benefit domains where issues such as volume, complexity and heterogeneity can overcome traditional techniques. Sensor networks are one such area where...

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...ntic Web promises a Web of annotated and linked data, a Web populated by autonomous and semi-autonomous software agents, agents that interpret, reason about and act on the annotations, links and data =-=[12, 49]-=-. Semantic Web technologies have the potential to benefit domains where issues such as volume, complexity and heterogeneity can overcome traditional techniques. Sensor networks are one such area where...

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...e a number of standards for sensor networks [18], it is typically more successful in removing interface heterogeneity than solving data and concept incompatibilities. The OGC’s SWE suite of standards =-=[13]-=-, including SensorML [14] and Observations and Measurements (O&M) [20, 21], for example, standardise interfaces for services and description languages for sensors and their processes. Quite deliberate...

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...oncepts to aid in searching, querying and managing the network and data. A semantic sensor web, on the other hand, is an OGC-style sensor web enriched with semantic annotation, querying and inference =-=[50]-=-. Semantic sensor webs rely on OGC standards and focus on issues external to the network, although the use of semantics inside the network isn’t precluded, while semantic sensor networks may include s...

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...or sensor networks [18], it is typically more successful in removing interface heterogeneity than solving data and concept incompatibilities. The OGC’s SWE suite of standards [13], including SensorML =-=[14]-=- and Observations and Measurements (O&M) [20, 21], for example, standardise interfaces for services and description languages for sensors and their processes. Quite deliberately, the SWE standards to ...

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...nd § 3.3), and thus come with DL inference for validation, categorisation and some search capability. SPARQL [7] gives greater search potential than DL querying, and can be combined with DL inference =-=[52]-=-. Kim et al. [35] and Eid et al. [26] give examples of using SPARQL to query a sensor ontology. 18 http://www.vaisala.com/files/WM30_Brochure_in_English.pdf Proc. Semantic Sensor Networks 2009, page 2...

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...acy and determining suitable operating states. Matheus et al. [38] include sensor types in an ontology developed for recording provenance, or pedigree, information in naval operations. The OntoSensor =-=[48, 47]-=- ontology was intended as a general knowledge base of sensors for query and inference, based on SensorML it includes concepts from IEEE SUMO and ISO 19115. The OntoSensor ontology includes concept and...

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...sor network data Kim et al. [35] 2008 ? services CESN [16] 8 2008 ✓ inferring domain knowledge from data SWAMO [55] 2008 ✓ intelligent agents A3ME [30, 31] 9 2008 ✓ resource constrained devices ISTAR =-=[44, 27]-=- 10 2009 ✓ task assignment OOSTethys [2] 11 2009 ✓ integrating standards-compliant Web services MMI [1] 12 2009 ✓ interoperability CSIRO [41] 13 2009 ✓ data integration, search, classification and wor...

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...nd flood detection), security and surveillance (for example, in traffic, building, city, and airport monitoring and anti-terrorism), and health (for example, in-home monitoring). Sugihara and Gupta’s =-=[53]-=- and Yick et al.’s [56] reviews demonstrate the broad scope of sensor networks, the devices they can contain and how they are programmed. Sensor networks, which are formed from communicating nodes (de...

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...DL and SPARQL has been applied for sensor descriptions. More advanced Semantic Web technologies such as mixtures of DL, structural similarity and information retrieval techniques, as in Klusch et al. =-=[36]-=-, have not yet been applied to sensors. If large amounts of data can be annotated using the techniques outlined in Section 4.1, either post processed or tagged at point of observation, then semantic r...

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...rtant points. The OntoSensor, SWAMO, OOSTethys, CSIRO and MMI ontologies, for example, can each describe the platform a sensor is attached. OntoSensor and OOSTethys, through the MMI platform ontology =-=[11]-=-, can describe the components of platforms. The SWAMO, CSIRO, OOSTethys, ISTAR and MMI ontologies can say a sensor is attached to something (a platform), OntoSensor can list the parts of the platform ...

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... covered sensors and measurements from a sensor perspective; however, the observation perspective is important and could be reviewed as a complement to this review. Among other O&M ontologies, Probst =-=[45, 46]-=- gives an ontological grounding for O&M aligned to the DOLCE upper ontology. The W3C Semantic Sensor Networks Incubator Group (SSN-XG), 20 which includes developers from the CSIRO, MMI and OOTethys on...

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...nsor webs, semantic sensor networks that aren’t reliant on OGC standards and allow the use of semantics to manage the network as well as its resulting data. Architectures for semantic sensor networks =-=[37, 42, 34, 57, 40]-=- use multiple layers of semantics and technology to provide infrastructure and services. The three layers of the architecture in this review (Figure 1) data, processing and application, respectively s...

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...E [30, 31] 9 2008 ✓ resource constrained devices ISTAR [44, 27] 10 2009 ✓ task assignment OOSTethys [2] 11 2009 ✓ integrating standards-compliant Web services MMI [1] 12 2009 ✓ interoperability CSIRO =-=[41]-=- 13 2009 ✓ data integration, search, classification and workflows Table 1. Ontologies studied in this review: references, year of last known update or publication, active if known, main stated purpose...

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...lt of an observation. The Marine Metadata Interoperability (MMI) Device Ontologies Working Group 16 is developing an ontology of oceanographic devices, sensors and samplers. The CSIRO sensor ontology =-=[41, 19]-=- is a generic ontology for describing sensors and deployments. It is intended to be used in data integration, search, classification and workflows. There are two example sensor definitions available f...

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... successful in removing interface heterogeneity than solving data and concept incompatibilities. The OGC’s SWE suite of standards [13], including SensorML [14] and Observations and Measurements (O&M) =-=[20, 21]-=-, for example, standardise interfaces for services and description languages for sensors and their processes. Quite deliberately, the SWE standards to not provide for interoperability beyond describin...

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...acy and determining suitable operating states. Matheus et al. [38] include sensor types in an ontology developed for recording provenance, or pedigree, information in naval operations. The OntoSensor =-=[48, 47]-=- ontology was intended as a general knowledge base of sensors for query and inference, based on SensorML it includes concepts from IEEE SUMO and ISO 19115. The OntoSensor ontology includes concept and...

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...ed). It is used by Calder, Morris and Peri [16] to derive further inferences about data, in ISTAR to derive further capabilities of sensors [44, 27, 22], and by a number of other related technologies =-=[54, 15, 57, 10, 34, 33]-=-. Henson et al. [29] annotate SWE services to reason over sensor data and query high-level knowledge of the environment as well as low-level sensor data. OWL reasoning and logic programming is used wi...

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...antics requires a model for defining entities and relationships, a syntax in which to write down the entities and relationships and a semantics for inference and constraints. However, as Sheth et al. =-=[51]-=- point out, reasoning need not be limited to DL reasoning and any number of inference mechanisms can be applied to semantic descriptions. A semantic sensor network requires declarative specifications ...

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...oes not indicate the relative expressive power or quality of those concepts, this section concludes by discussing qualitative aspects of the ontologies (§3.3). 3.1 Ontologies Avancha, Patel and Joshi =-=[9]-=- describe an ontology for adaptive sensor networks, where nodes react to available power and environmental factors, calibrating for accuracy and determining suitable operating states. Matheus et al. [...

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... covered sensors and measurements from a sensor perspective; however, the observation perspective is important and could be reviewed as a complement to this review. Among other O&M ontologies, Probst =-=[45, 46]-=- gives an ontological grounding for O&M aligned to the DOLCE upper ontology. The W3C Semantic Sensor Networks Incubator Group (SSN-XG), 20 which includes developers from the CSIRO, MMI and OOTethys on...

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...ors for query and inference, based on SensorML it includes concepts from IEEE SUMO and ISO 19115. The OntoSensor ontology includes concept and individual definitions of CrossBow sensors. 5 Kim et al. =-=[35]-=- extend OntoSensor for Web services, though the ontology or full details are not available. Eid et al. [25, 26] propose a two-tier framework for a sensor ontology. In their framework the sensor hierar...

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...er conditions) from low-level data (temperature and wind speed). It is used by Calder, Morris and Peri [16] to derive further inferences about data, in ISTAR to derive further capabilities of sensors =-=[44, 27, 22]-=-, and by a number of other related technologies [54, 15, 57, 10, 34, 33]. Henson et al. [29] annotate SWE services to reason over sensor data and query high-level knowledge of the environment as well ...

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...nsor webs, semantic sensor networks that aren’t reliant on OGC standards and allow the use of semantics to manage the network as well as its resulting data. Architectures for semantic sensor networks =-=[37, 42, 34, 57, 40]-=- use multiple layers of semantics and technology to provide infrastructure and services. The three layers of the architecture in this review (Figure 1) data, processing and application, respectively s...

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...] describe an ontology for adaptive sensor networks, where nodes react to available power and environmental factors, calibrating for accuracy and determining suitable operating states. Matheus et al. =-=[38]-=- include sensor types in an ontology developed for recording provenance, or pedigree, information in naval operations. The OntoSensor [48, 47] ontology was intended as a general knowledge base of sens...

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...nsor webs, semantic sensor networks that aren’t reliant on OGC standards and allow the use of semantics to manage the network as well as its resulting data. Architectures for semantic sensor networks =-=[37, 42, 34, 57, 40]-=- use multiple layers of semantics and technology to provide infrastructure and services. The three layers of the architecture in this review (Figure 1) data, processing and application, respectively s...

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... et al. [25, 26] propose a two-tier framework for a sensor ontology. In their framework the sensor hierarchy, data and extension ontologies (lower tier) all reference SUMO (upper tier). Calder et al. =-=[16]-=-, as part of the Coastal Environmental Sensing Networks (CESN) project 6 for sensor networks for coastal observing, have built an ontology of sensor types and a DL and logic programming rules reasoner...

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...easure: though, much of the material reviewed does view sensors as devices. While standardisation solves some issues of device incompatibility, and there are a number of standards for sensor networks =-=[18]-=-, it is typically more successful in removing interface heterogeneity than solving data and concept incompatibilities. The OGC’s SWE suite of standards [13], including SensorML [14] and Observations a...

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...id et al. [25, 26] 2007 ? searching heterogeneous sensor network data Kim et al. [35] 2008 ? services CESN [16] 8 2008 ✓ inferring domain knowledge from data SWAMO [55] 2008 ✓ intelligent agents A3ME =-=[30, 31]-=- 9 2008 ✓ resource constrained devices ISTAR [44, 27] 10 2009 ✓ task assignment OOSTethys [2] 11 2009 ✓ integrating standards-compliant Web services MMI [1] 12 2009 ✓ interoperability CSIRO [41] 13 20...

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...nsor webs, semantic sensor networks that aren’t reliant on OGC standards and allow the use of semantics to manage the network as well as its resulting data. Architectures for semantic sensor networks =-=[37, 42, 34, 57, 40]-=- use multiple layers of semantics and technology to provide infrastructure and services. The three layers of the architecture in this review (Figure 1) data, processing and application, respectively s...

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...ces CESN [16] 8 2008 ✓ inferring domain knowledge from data SWAMO [55] 2008 ✓ intelligent agents A3ME [30, 31] 9 2008 ✓ resource constrained devices ISTAR [44, 27] 10 2009 ✓ task assignment OOSTethys =-=[2]-=- 11 2009 ✓ integrating standards-compliant Web services MMI [1] 12 2009 ✓ interoperability CSIRO [41] 13 2009 ✓ data integration, search, classification and workflows Table 1. Ontologies studied in th...

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... successful in removing interface heterogeneity than solving data and concept incompatibilities. The OGC’s SWE suite of standards [13], including SensorML [14] and Observations and Measurements (O&M) =-=[20, 21]-=-, for example, standardise interfaces for services and description languages for sensors and their processes. Quite deliberately, the SWE standards to not provide for interoperability beyond describin...

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... authorities. Until such authorities and ontologies exist, however, these aspects must be handled in conjunction with a sensor ontology; for example, building on either OWL-Time 19 or Henson et al.’s =-=[28]-=- model for time series information, which is not currently covered adequately in sensor ontologies. No current ontology, nor a combination of the available ontologies, is able to express all the prope...

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...ensor ontology includes concept and individual definitions of CrossBow sensors. 5 Kim et al. [35] extend OntoSensor for Web services, though the ontology or full details are not available. Eid et al. =-=[25, 26]-=- propose a two-tier framework for a sensor ontology. In their framework the sensor hierarchy, data and extension ontologies (lower tier) all reference SUMO (upper tier). Calder et al. [16], as part of...

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... two layers of ontology with the intention of using rules to deduce high-level, contextual information from low-level data, but do not provide enough detail to be included in the analysis here. Horan =-=[32]-=- uses the OWL-S [43] Web services ontology as a basis for a sensor ontology, but does not provide enough detail for inclusion. As it is based on services, processes, inputs and outputs, and grounding ...

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...ed). It is used by Calder, Morris and Peri [16] to derive further inferences about data, in ISTAR to derive further capabilities of sensors [44, 27, 22], and by a number of other related technologies =-=[54, 15, 57, 10, 34, 33]-=-. Henson et al. [29] annotate SWE services to reason over sensor data and query high-level knowledge of the environment as well as low-level sensor data. OWL reasoning and logic programming is used wi...

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...ed). It is used by Calder, Morris and Peri [16] to derive further inferences about data, in ISTAR to derive further capabilities of sensors [44, 27, 22], and by a number of other related technologies =-=[54, 15, 57, 10, 34, 33]-=-. Henson et al. [29] annotate SWE services to reason over sensor data and query high-level knowledge of the environment as well as low-level sensor data. OWL reasoning and logic programming is used wi...

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...nsor webs, semantic sensor networks that aren’t reliant on OGC standards and allow the use of semantics to manage the network as well as its resulting data. Architectures for semantic sensor networks =-=[37, 42, 34, 57, 40]-=- use multiple layers of semantics and technology to provide infrastructure and services. The three layers of the architecture in this review (Figure 1) data, processing and application, respectively s...

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...course be recursive, deriving new knowledge from previously inferred knowledge. This review views semantic descriptions as OWL ontologies — for which purpose, both the original W3C OWL recommendation =-=[4]-=-, based on the SHOIN Description Logic (DL), and the almost finalised OWL 2 [8], based on SROIQ, are included. OWL serves a dual role in semantics: it is part mark-up of information and part logic for...

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... reasoning power. These technologies allow a semantic sensor network to integrate multiple sensor networks, other data sources and services in ways that can cross organisational and domain boundaries =-=[17]-=-. The following list (compiled from material in the Marine Metadata Interoperability (MMI) Device use cases, 4 Sheth et al. [50], Ni et al. [42] and Huang and Javed [34]) demonstrates potential capabi...

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...sensors and deployments. It is intended to be used in data integration, search, classification and workflows. There are two example sensor definitions available for the CSIRO ontology. Hu, Wu and Guo =-=[33]-=- develop two layers of ontology with the intention of using rules to deduce high-level, contextual information from low-level data, but do not provide enough detail to be included in the analysis here...

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...ogy with the intention of using rules to deduce high-level, contextual information from low-level data, but do not provide enough detail to be included in the analysis here. Horan [32] uses the OWL-S =-=[43]-=- Web services ontology as a basis for a sensor ontology, but does not provide enough detail for inclusion. As it is based on services, processes, inputs and outputs, and grounding (which is interpreta...

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... and logic programming rules reasoner for making inferences about data and anomalies in measurements. The CESN ontology has ten concept definitions for sensor instances and six individuals. The SWAMO =-=[55]-=- ontology for intelligent software agents describes physical devices and process models and tasks. The ontology was designed to compatible with SensorML. 5 http://www.xbow.com/ 6 http://www.cesn.org 7...

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...id et al. [25, 26] 2007 ? searching heterogeneous sensor network data Kim et al. [35] 2008 ? services CESN [16] 8 2008 ✓ inferring domain knowledge from data SWAMO [55] 2008 ✓ intelligent agents A3ME =-=[30, 31]-=- 9 2008 ✓ resource constrained devices ISTAR [44, 27] 10 2009 ✓ task assignment OOSTethys [2] 11 2009 ✓ integrating standards-compliant Web services MMI [1] 12 2009 ✓ interoperability CSIRO [41] 13 20...

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...cription Logic (DL), and the almost finalised OWL 2 [8], based on SROIQ, are included. OWL serves a dual role in semantics: it is part mark-up of information and part logic for reasoning. Ding et al. =-=[23]-=- argue that an ontology language for semantics requires a model for defining entities and relationships, a syntax in which to write down the entities and relationships and a semantics for inference an...

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...th other RDFa-based Web mashups. SWE also provides a definition attribute that provides a link to a registry definition, which may also link to an ontological description [29, 39]. In addition, SWING =-=[24]-=-, Semantic Web-Service Interoperability for Geospatial Decision Making, describes sensor annotation of OGC documents at three distinct levels: (1) at the document level using keyword metadata, (2) at ...

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...outlines methods of describing links between resources in XML documents. XLink attributes can be added to SensorML and O&M documents (see Figure 2) to provide semantic annotations for the sensor data =-=[29, 39]-=-. Fig. 2. Semantic annotation of O&M with XLink RDFa, Resource Description Framework-in-attributes, enables the layering of RDF information on any XHTML or XML document. RDFa provides a set of attribu...