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...take corruption levels into account in their decisions tosallocate aid. This evidence comes primarily from several large-n analyses of the relationship betweenslevels of aid and levels of corruption (=-=Alesina and Weder 1999-=-; Easterley and Pfutze 2008;sSvensson 2000). This finding is supported by qualitative research suggesting that donors like thesWorld Bank have turned a blind eye to corruption in countries like Mozamb...

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...ve as to the effectiveness of SAIs in reducing corruption.sIt is however argued that this impact may decrease over time or causesother forms of corruption to increase (Di Tella and Schargrodsky 2003; =-=Olken 2007-=-; and Brollos2009). Based on this evidence, Hanna et al. conclude that “additional research is required in order tosevaluate whether these strategies can be successful in the long term” (2011, 33).s5....

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...ncy, accountability, and competition—and specific incentives such asswhistleblowing—have been documented to work if the right preconditions were present (RoseAckerman and Truex 2012; Lambsdorff 2007; =-=Klitgaard 1988-=-; Rose-Ackerman 1978). Donors havesbuilt their public sector support programmes on these insights. The sub-sections below review thesevidence for whether these public sector support programmes have be...

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...ity, and competition—and specific incentives such asswhistleblowing—have been documented to work if the right preconditions were present (RoseAckerman and Truex 2012; Lambsdorff 2007; Klitgaard 1988; =-=Rose-Ackerman 1978-=-). Donors havesbuilt their public sector support programmes on these insights. The sub-sections below review thesevidence for whether these public sector support programmes have been effective in redu...

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...owed by actual results theysare likely to result in disillusionment and cynicism among the public (Bryane 2007; Disch, Vigeland,sand Sundet 2009).sand a broad spectrum of countries (Stapenhurst 2000; =-=Brunetti and Weder 2003-=-;sChowdhury 2004; Freille, Haq, and Kneller 2007; Lambsdorff 2006). This general finding is partiallysqualified by studies that suggest that press freedom alone is insufficient to reduce corruption, a...

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...ional norms, including anti-corruption norms, in domestic jurisdictions. They do so insdifferent ways, in particular by providing “blueprints” for appropriate institutions and behaviours(Chekel 2005; =-=Finnemore and Sikkink 1998-=-), and by providing a framework of reference that (insthe case of anti-corruption norms) anti-corruption campaigners can rally and organize around (Thomass2001). Stronger domestic anti-corruption norm...

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...at aid and informal socialsservice delivery by NGOs or communities at the local level often revives and reinforces the patronagespower of local elites, who become the gatekeepers to aid and services (=-=Ghani and Lockart 2008-=-;sJackson 2005; Nakaya 2008).sThe following sections (4 through 9) set out to evaluate the evidence on specific anti-corruptionsinterventions identified through the mapping exercise, with each section...

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...n the traffic police at checkpoints entailed the cost of each trip to risesby 13 per cent, and that the problem could not easily be “reformed away,” for example by reducing thesnumber of checkpoints (=-=Olken and Barron 2007-=-). The wider criminology literature and evaluationss31 Some authors make a point that this traditional distinction is unproductive, and that technical reforms should also have aspolitical component (H...

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...nto account in their decisions tosallocate aid. This evidence comes primarily from several large-n analyses of the relationship betweenslevels of aid and levels of corruption (Alesina and Weder 1999; =-=Easterley and Pfutze 2008-=-;sSvensson 2000). This finding is supported by qualitative research suggesting that donors like thesWorld Bank have turned a blind eye to corruption in countries like Mozambique because thesgovernment...

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...on efforts.47 The evidence for social accountability mechanisms, in particular community monitoring, is moressubstantial, with a range of qualitative (Arroyo and Sirker 2005; McNeil and Mumvuma 2006;s=-=Gaventa and Barrett 2010-=-) and micro-level studies (Ravindra 2004; Reinikka and Svensson 2005;sBjörkman and Svensson 2009; Duflo, Hanna, and Ryan forthcoming)—however, there is a noted lacksof comparative and large-n studies....

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...ind eye to corruption in countries like Mozambique because thesgovernment implemented the prescribed reform programmes, and because continued GDP growthsmade it look like a development success story (=-=Hanlon 2004-=-). Evaluations of World Bank practicessalso point to the inconsistent application of political economy analysis and responsiveness tosGovernance and Anti-Corruption (GAC) issues (IEG 2009; IEG 2011; Q...

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...e focus isstherefore predominantly on administrative, rather than political corruption.31 There is a strong correlation between levels of corruption and the effectiveness of a country’s legalssystem (=-=Herzfeld and Weiss 2003-=-). 32 In short, the evidence on the effectiveness of technical justice sector reforms to reduce corruption issweak as the number of studies is low, and the focus of their inquiries fails to address th...

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...ation and community monitoring.sOn the other hand, decentralization may be an expensive and ineffective reform when implemented inscommunities that lack participation and capacity (Hanna et al. 2011; =-=Lessmann and Markwardt 2010-=-;sChavis 2010; Reinikka and Svensson 2004a; Bjorkman and Svensson 2009).40 A combination of qualitative and quantitative studies shows that decentralizing services to localsgovernment is not a panacea...

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...ost NACS failsbecause they are incomplete, poorly designed, and/or badly implemented.sMost studies warn against a one-size-fits-all approach to NACS, showing how thissleads to failure (McCusker 2006; =-=Doig and Riley 1998-=-). There are few cases where success is claimedsbut empirical data supporting this is weak (Kwok 2006).s27 Anti-corruption lawssHowever, such studiessoften conflate the tool of NACS, coordinating and ...

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... scholars have developed for measuring corruptionssuggest that establishing credible evidence for the effectiveness of many anti-corruption interventionssis possible, if methodologically challenging (=-=Kaufmann 1997-=-; Olken and Pande 2011; Kaufmann,sKray, and Mastruzzi 2006).sThe three principal measurement problems with regard to corruption are:s• Precisely measuring the scale of corruption;s• Measuring change i...

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...ct of advocacy on corruption, severalsstudies find that advocacy has the potential to increase the effectiveness of other anti-corruptionsinterventions, for example social accountability initiatives (=-=McGee and Gaventa 2010-=-; Arroyo andsSirker 2005).s48 The existing evidence mostly suggests that transparency andsaccountability initiatives (including social accountability) can contribute to increased state orsinstitutiona...

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...ntries adopting such laws do not become less corrupt (Tavares 2007),sothers suggest that some elements of FoI and asset declarations are associated with lower corruptions(Mukherjee and Gokcekus 2006; =-=Djankov et al. 2010-=-).sAdditional domestic laws oftensregulate issues such as access to information, conflict of interest, whistle-blower protection, politicalsparty financing, freedom of expression, and media freedom.sT...

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...n corruption. It was beyond the scope of this study to assess individualselements of policies, but some such as staff rotation and e-government have been proven to work inssome contexts (Abbink 2004; =-=Andersen 2009-=-). Overall, the evidence for this category is consideredsweak.sUNCAC defines areas where laws should be in place to criminalize acts of corruption such as bribery,sembezzlement, misappropriation, trad...

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... Smilov 2004; Ezeohas2006); ands• Effective partnerships between local NGOs/CSOs and donors aimed at strengtheningsNGO/CSO capacity are limited by the reporting requirements placed on them by donorss(=-=Brinkerhoff and Brinkerhoff 2004-=-).45 The lack of comparative analysis and the small number of studies however means that these findingsscannot be confidently generalized. The conclusion of these studies specifically focused on antic...

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...sAfrica, for example, have at times effectively advocated for better governance (Goldsmith 2002), andsintegrity pacts appear to have had positive results in reducing corruption in public procurements(=-=Boehm and Olaya 2006-=-; Transparency International 2002).sYet despite the examples given above, there is weak evidence as to the effectiveness of the privatessector, business associations, and professional associations in ...

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...d, they either rely on performance metrics such as the number of investigationssinitiated, or responses to complaints. A few also link the success of an ACA to the country’s rankingson the CPI index (=-=Heilbrunn 2004-=-; Quah 2010; Meagher 2004). These indicators of effectivenesssoversimplify reality and do not provide a fair assessment, as they only measure parts of what wouldsconstitute an effective ACA.sSecond, w...

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...izations.33 There is scant evidence on the effectiveness of interventions to achieve either of these objectives. Mostscase studies are qualitative case studies, mainly documenting unsuccessful cases (=-=Hills 2008-=-; Baranyisand Erin 2011; Murray 2007; Davis 2006; di Puppo 2010).sDonor-funded police reform programmes areswidespread in developing countries, and often have two major corruption-related objectives: ...

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... on the effectiveness of interventions to achieve either of these objectives. Mostscase studies are qualitative case studies, mainly documenting unsuccessful cases (Hills 2008; Baranyisand Erin 2011; =-=Murray 2007-=-; Davis 2006; di Puppo 2010).sDonor-funded police reform programmes areswidespread in developing countries, and often have two major corruption-related objectives: reducingsinternal police corruption ...

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... in order to identifysresource use and “leakage” (Reinikka and Svensson 2003, 3). By analysing the discrepancy betweensactual versus reported expenditure, reliable estimates of “leakage” can be made (=-=Gauthier 2006-=-). Othersexamples are the Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability (PEFA) reviews and OECD’ssDevelopment Assistance Committee’s PFM Public Performance Measurement Framework. The datasgenerated ...

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... at thesnational level.s46 See for example Duflo, Hanna, and Ryan (forthcoming) and Knox (2009).sU4 Issue 2012:7 Mapping evidence gaps in anti-corruption www.U4.nos27sgrey literature) (Baviskar 2008; =-=Jenkins 2007-=-; Baker 2008), it found no quantitative or comparativesstudies explicitly addressing anti-corruption advocacy. There is stronger evidence on the effectivenesssof certain subsets of advocacy, for examp...

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...oring, is moressubstantial, with a range of qualitative (Arroyo and Sirker 2005; McNeil and Mumvuma 2006;sGaventa and Barrett 2010) and micro-level studies (Ravindra 2004; Reinikka and Svensson 2005;s=-=Björkman and Svensson 2009-=-; Duflo, Hanna, and Ryan forthcoming)—however, there is a noted lacksof comparative and large-n studies.sAlso, while not directly assessing the impact of advocacy on corruption, severalsstudies find t...

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...valuations tend not to focussspecifically on anti-corruption impacts, but on examining the overall effectiveness of aid projects. Allsfour studies find the effectiveness of evaluations to be limited (=-=Borrmann and Michaelowa 2006-=-;sClements, Chianca, and Sasaki 2008; Liverani and Lundgren 2007; World Bank 2007), thoughsthe reasons for this are only explored in three of them (Borrmann and Michaelowa 2006; Clements,sChianca, and...

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... suggest that most NACS failsbecause they are incomplete, poorly designed, and/or badly implemented.sMost studies warn against a one-size-fits-all approach to NACS, showing how thissleads to failure (=-=McCusker 2006-=-; Doig and Riley 1998). There are few cases where success is claimedsbut empirical data supporting this is weak (Kwok 2006).s27 Anti-corruption lawssHowever, such studiessoften conflate the tool of NA...

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...ivery by NGOs or communities at the local level often revives and reinforces the patronagespower of local elites, who become the gatekeepers to aid and services (Ghani and Lockart 2008;sJackson 2005; =-=Nakaya 2008-=-).sThe following sections (4 through 9) set out to evaluate the evidence on specific anti-corruptionsinterventions identified through the mapping exercise, with each section concluding with observatio...

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...s and related bodies. The few studies that were identified found the ombudspersons tosbe ineffective, typically due to lack of independence, funds, and capacity (Sherlock 2002; Piron andsO’Neil 2005; =-=Andreassen and Oftedal 2007-=-). As the evidence is primarily composed of case studiessthat generally do not address the role of ombudspersons in the fight against corruption, it is consideredsto be weak.s5.4 Judicial independence...

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...vidence on electronic procurement (e-procurement), a popular reform choice, was nonexistent. Reform choices are thus still largely a “hit and miss affair” rather than a solid evidence-basedsexercise (=-=Andvig 2011-=-).sHowever, many of thesdocumented cases are selected success stories. No studies addressing failed reforms were found.sEven though several of the reviewed studies provide very strong evidence that pr...

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... for corruption offences can be secured. An independent and wellfunctioning judiciary is therefore fundamental to effectively tackling corruption (USAID 2002;sHerzfeld and Weiss 2003; Mendelski 2010; =-=Dakolias and Thachuk 2000-=-).sThe evidence for the contribution of judicial reform programmes to securing judicial independence,showever, is rather weak. The number of studies examining such interventions that have been identif...

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...assessment of the strength of evidence across the whole spectrum of anti-corruption reforms. Recentsreviews of donor-supported anti-corruption efforts have highlighted the need for stronger evidences(=-=Hanna et al. 2011-=-; Norad 2011). Operationally, anti-corruption practitioners want evidence for whatsworks, when, where, and why; and they also need to understand which interventions do not work inscertain contexts, an...

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...fective or not, but only the extent and consistency of its application.64 Only one studyswas identified that actually examines the effectiveness of a particular risk assessment process (“redsflags”) (=-=Kenny and Musatova 2010-=-), and it suggests that the “red flags” indicators used in World Banksprojects to identify corruption risks are problematic especially as particular “red flags” can havesmultiple causes and do not nec...

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...inal convictions for corruption offences can be secured. An independent and wellfunctioning judiciary is therefore fundamental to effectively tackling corruption (USAID 2002;sHerzfeld and Weiss 2003; =-=Mendelski 2010-=-; Dakolias and Thachuk 2000).sThe evidence for the contribution of judicial reform programmes to securing judicial independence,showever, is rather weak. The number of studies examining such intervent...

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...t auditing, legislative oversight, and judicialscontrol (Santiso 2006);s• Executive interference into the auditing process (Wang and Rakner 2005); ands• Consistent underfunding of audit institutions (=-=Migliorisi and Wescott 2011-=-).sThis is confirmed by several larger comparative studies. Migliorisi and Wescott (2011) find that, insmore cases than not, the effectiveness of SAIs (from a sample of 37 countries) receiving World B...

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...hile one study finds that countries adopting such laws do not become less corrupt (Tavares 2007),sothers suggest that some elements of FoI and asset declarations are associated with lower corruptions(=-=Mukherjee and Gokcekus 2006-=-; Djankov et al. 2010).sAdditional domestic laws oftensregulate issues such as access to information, conflict of interest, whistle-blower protection, politicalsparty financing, freedom of expression,...