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...r the present study, participants were not asked tosprovide explanations or justifications of their thoughts, since verbalizations of that typeshave been argued to be reactive on cognitive processes (=-=Ericsson & Simon, 1993-=-; Leows& Morgan-Short, 2004). The participants were instead instructed simply to verbalizeswhatever thoughts naturally came to mind.sStimulated recall interviews. Another introspective measure, the st...

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...s. More specifically, input is likelysto be noticed when it is interpretable (e.g., VanPatten, 1996); meets learners’ expectationssor relates to their L1, L2, or prior knowledge (e.g., Carroll, 1999; =-=Ellis, 1994-=-; Gass, 1997;sPark, 2010); is frequent or perceptually salient (e.g., Bardovi-Harlig, 1987; Ellis, 1994;sGass, 1997; Mackey, 2006); or is meaningful or necessary for understanding (e.g.,sMackey, Gass,...

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...pose deviant learner output with targetlikesformulations. According to Long (2007), “This allows the learner to compare the twosforms side by side, so to speak, and to observe the contrast” (also see =-=Long, 1996-=-; Saxton,s1997). Thirdly, in contrast to other types of interactional feedback such as negotiations,srecasts not only provide negative evidence to alert learners of a mistake, but also supplyspositive...

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...t on complexsversions of tasks there will be greater attention to, and uptake of forms madessalient during provision of reactive Focus on Form techniques such as recasts (seesDoughty 2001; Long 2007; =-=Long and Robinson 1998-=-) (Robinson & Gilabert,s2007, p. 167).sIn this statement, they did not make a distinction between resource-dispersing andsresource-directing dimensions regarding the prediction for noticing of interac...

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...fically, input is likelysto be noticed when it is interpretable (e.g., VanPatten, 1996); meets learners’ expectationssor relates to their L1, L2, or prior knowledge (e.g., Carroll, 1999; Ellis, 1994; =-=Gass, 1997-=-;sPark, 2010); is frequent or perceptually salient (e.g., Bardovi-Harlig, 1987; Ellis, 1994;sGass, 1997; Mackey, 2006); or is meaningful or necessary for understanding (e.g.,sMackey, Gass, & McDonough...

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...nce learning.sOne cognitive factor that has been receiving a fair amount of attention in SLA issworking memory (WM). WM is “an integrated system for temporarily storing andsmanipulating information” (=-=Baddeley, 2003-=-, p. 837). It underlies learners’ ability toshandle both processing and storing of information simultaneously as they work on aslanguage task; therefore, it has been claimed that learners with higher ...

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...corrective intentionssappearing quite obvious to learners. This has made researchers argue that the efficacy ofsrecasts on learning may change depending on the type of recasts learners receive (e.g.,s=-=Doughty & Varela, 1998-=-; Han, 2002).sEmpirically, this account regarding the differentiated efficacy of varied types ofsrecasts on development has been supported. Loewen and Philp (2006) revealed thatscharacteristics of rec...

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...9), 2) the linguistic target (e.g.,sIwashita, 2003; Leeman, 2003; Mackey, 2006; Ortega & Long, 1997; Yang & Lyster,s2010; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011; Witzel & Ono, 2003), 3) developmental readiness (e.g.,s=-=Mackey & Philp, 1998-=-) or proficiency level (Ammar & Spada, 2006), 4) individualsdifferences (e.g., Goo, 2011; Mackey, Philp, Egi, Fujii, & Tatsumi, 2002; Mackey &sSachs, 2012; Sagarra, 2007; Sheen, 2008; Trofimovich, Amm...

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...ey, 2000; Mackey, 2012: Mackey, Abbuhl, & Gass, 2012).sIn regard to reactivity, it has been stated that it is less of a concern with stimulatedsrecall protocols than with think-aloud protocols (e.g., =-=Gass & Mackey, 2000-=-). Indeed, itscannot affect performance on the task which participants are recalling because the taskshas already been completed before the recall. However, there have been reports thatsstimulated rec...

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...ementation of strategic planning generally produces positive effects on learners’ tasksperformance. The studies have revealed clear and consistent confirmatory effects onsfluency (e.g. Crookes, 1989; =-=Foster & Skehan, 1996-=-; Gilabert, 2006; Kawauchi, 2005;s48sMehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 2005). Forscomplexity and accuracy, with the exception of a few studies, research has also repo...

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... their contradicting findings, Loewen and Philpsalternatively speculated that “declarative recasts may be interpreted in the same way as asteacher’s repetition of learners’ TL [targetlike] forms (see =-=Lyster, 1998-=-) and, thus, maysfunction just as implicitly for the learners” (p. 541). Taking into account this explanationsfrom Loewen and Philp, it may be that the intonation of recasts itself does not changesthe...

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...; Ellis, 1994; Gass, 1997;sPark, 2010); is frequent or perceptually salient (e.g., Bardovi-Harlig, 1987; Ellis, 1994;sGass, 1997; Mackey, 2006); or is meaningful or necessary for understanding (e.g.,s=-=Mackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000-=-; VanPatten, 1996; Mackey, 2006). As far assdevelopmental level is concerned, beginning learners may not notice as much assadvanced learners (Atannassova, 2012); and in addition to the higher developm...

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...res, which involve collecting data after learners are exposed to L2 input.sOnline sources of data include eye tracking (Godfroid, Housen, & Boer , 2010), notesstaken by learners (e.g., Hanaoka, 2007; =-=Izumi, 2002-=-), recordings of private speech (e.g.,sOhta, 2000), and think-aloud protocols (e.g., Alanen, 1995; Hama & Leow, 2010;sJourdenais et al., 1995; Leow, 1997, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh...

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...rtly indicate to learners that they have made a mistake. However, it is widelysacknowledged that the degree of implicitness among different types of recasts variessgreatly (e.g., Ellis & Sheen, 2006; =-=Nicholas, Lightbown, & Spada, 2001-=-), and that certainstypes of recasts may be more salient than others, with some recasts’ corrective intentionssappearing quite obvious to learners. This has made researchers argue that the efficacy of...

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...more realistic picture of learners’ performance (e.g.,sFoster & Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Foster, 1997), some have focused on the accuracy ofsspecific forms in learners’ production (e.g., Crookes, 1989; =-=Ellis, 1987-=-; Kawauchi, 2005;sMochizuki & Ortega, 2008; Ortega, 1999, 2005; Wigglesworth, 1997). Ortega (1999) hassclaimed, “global measures have the disadvantage of being too broad to capture smallschanges…and o...

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...notesstaken by learners (e.g., Hanaoka, 2007; Izumi, 2002), recordings of private speech (e.g.,sOhta, 2000), and think-aloud protocols (e.g., Alanen, 1995; Hama & Leow, 2010;sJourdenais et al., 1995; =-=Leow, 1997-=-, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh,s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., Schmidt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,sRobinson, 1997a, b), interviews (e.g., Williams, 2005), imm...

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...y of the data. This concurrency of reporting is an obvioussadvantage; however, it has also been argued to create a risk of reactivity, which maysthreaten the validity of the verbalization data (e.g., =-=Ellis, 2001-=-; Jourdenais, 2001,sRobinson, Mackey, Gass, & Schmidt, 2012). For example, engaging in concurrent verbalsreporting while completing a task may function as an additional task, thereby, imposingsan extr...

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...earners’ tasksperformance. The studies have revealed clear and consistent confirmatory effects onsfluency (e.g. Crookes, 1989; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Gilabert, 2006; Kawauchi, 2005;s48sMehnert, 1998; =-=Ortega, 1999-=-; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 2005). Forscomplexity and accuracy, with the exception of a few studies, research has also reportedsencouraging results (e.g., complexity: Crookes, 1989; Foste...

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...a include eye tracking (Godfroid, Housen, & Boer , 2010), notesstaken by learners (e.g., Hanaoka, 2007; Izumi, 2002), recordings of private speech (e.g.,sOhta, 2000), and think-aloud protocols (e.g., =-=Alanen, 1995-=-; Hama & Leow, 2010;sJourdenais et al., 1995; Leow, 1997, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh,s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., Schmidt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,sRob...

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...2 development” (p. 182).sRecasts have been found to be the most frequently used type of interactionalsfeedback in instructional settings (e.g., Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001; Lyster &sMori, 2006; =-=Lyster & Ranta, 1997-=-). Gass and Mackey (2007) define a recast as “asrephrasing of an incorrect utterance using a correct form while maintaining the originalsmeaning” (p. 182) (see Example 1). One of recasts’ unique and h...

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...n that thesimplementation of strategic planning generally produces positive effects on learners’ tasksperformance. The studies have revealed clear and consistent confirmatory effects onsfluency (e.g. =-=Crookes, 1989-=-; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Gilabert, 2006; Kawauchi, 2005;s48sMehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 2005). Forscomplexity and accuracy, with the exception of a few studies,...

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... the issue of awareness.sSummary on NoticingsThe studies with more sound methodologies as far as the measurement ofsawareness is concerned (Faretta-Stutenberg & Morgan-Short, 2011; Hama & Leow, 2010;s=-=Leow, 2000-=-) consistently suggested that noticing is necessary for L2 learning, as Schmidtsand Robinson claimed (e.g., Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001); however, furthersexamination is undoubtedly essential in ord...

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...ve effects on learners’ tasksperformance. The studies have revealed clear and consistent confirmatory effects onsfluency (e.g. Crookes, 1989; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Gilabert, 2006; Kawauchi, 2005;s48s=-=Mehnert, 1998-=-; Ortega, 1999; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 2005). Forscomplexity and accuracy, with the exception of a few studies, research has also reportedsencouraging results (e.g., complexity: Crooke...

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...s. Philp (2003) assigned her participants into high-,sintermediate- and low-level groups based on their production of question forms accordingsto the six stages of development for question formation (=-=Pienemann & Johnston, 1987-=-).s41sPhilp operationalized noticing as the accurate immediate recall of recasts. During aspicture drawing task, learners asked a native interlocutor questions to complete thespicture drawing and the ...

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...sthe efficacy of recasts on L2 development. 1sThese include, but are not limited to: 1) thestype of recast (e.g., Loewen & Philp, 2006; Nassaji, 2009), 2) the linguistic target (e.g.,sIwashita, 2003; =-=Leeman, 2003-=-; Mackey, 2006; Ortega & Long, 1997; Yang & Lyster,s2010; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011; Witzel & Ono, 2003), 3) developmental readiness (e.g.,sMackey & Philp, 1998) or proficiency level (Ammar & Spada, 2006)...

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...osa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh,s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., Schmidt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,sRobinson, 1997a, b), interviews (e.g., Williams, 2005), immediate recall (=-=Philp, 2003-=-),simmediate reports (Egi, 2004), and stimulated recall protocols (e.g., Adams, 2003; Egi,s2010; Mackey, 2006; Mackey et al., 2000; Nabei & Swain, 2002; Swain & Lapkin, 2002).sAmong those various meas...

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...995; Hama & Leow, 2010;sJourdenais et al., 1995; Leow, 1997, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh,s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., Schmidt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,s=-=Robinson, 1997-=-a, b), interviews (e.g., Williams, 2005), immediate recall (Philp, 2003),simmediate reports (Egi, 2004), and stimulated recall protocols (e.g., Adams, 2003; Egi,s2010; Mackey, 2006; Mackey et al., 200...

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..., 2003; Leeman, 2003; Mackey, 2006; Ortega & Long, 1997; Yang & Lyster,s2010; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011; Witzel & Ono, 2003), 3) developmental readiness (e.g.,sMackey & Philp, 1998) or proficiency level (=-=Ammar & Spada, 2006-=-), 4) individualsdifferences (e.g., Goo, 2011; Mackey, Philp, Egi, Fujii, & Tatsumi, 2002; Mackey &sSachs, 2012; Sagarra, 2007; Sheen, 2008; Trofimovich, Ammar, & Gatbonton, 2007),sand 5) task variabl...

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...nssor relates to their L1, L2, or prior knowledge (e.g., Carroll, 1999; Ellis, 1994; Gass, 1997;sPark, 2010); is frequent or perceptually salient (e.g., Bardovi-Harlig, 1987; Ellis, 1994;sGass, 1997; =-=Mackey, 2006-=-); or is meaningful or necessary for understanding (e.g.,sMackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000; VanPatten, 1996; Mackey, 2006). As far assdevelopmental level is concerned, beginning learners may not notice...

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...e evaluated whethersproviding detailed suggestions regarding the use of strategic planning time as part of thesplanning instructions would positively impact learners’ production. Other studies (e.g.,s=-=Foster & Skehan, 1999-=-; Mochizuki & Ortega, 2008; Sangarun, 2005) have examinedswhether content-focused or grammar-focused instructions would change learners’sproduction. In the studies by Foster and Skehan (1996) investig...

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...ndstheir ability to provide protocols must be considered” (p. 374). It has also been cautionedsthat the lack of verbal report cannot be taken as evidence that learners did not noticessomething (e.g., =-=Allport, 1988-=-; Mackey et al., 2000; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999). In manysstudies, therefore, in order to increase the robustness of their data, researchers acquirestriangulated data by additionally utilizing some type o...

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...pearing quite obvious to learners. This has made researchers argue that the efficacy ofsrecasts on learning may change depending on the type of recasts learners receive (e.g.,sDoughty & Varela, 1998; =-=Han, 2002-=-).sEmpirically, this account regarding the differentiated efficacy of varied types ofsrecasts on development has been supported. Loewen and Philp (2006) revealed thatscharacteristics of recasts such a...

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...y work on aslanguage task; therefore, it has been claimed that learners with higher WM may receives34smore benefit from recasts. A number of researchers have empirically tested this claims(Goo, 2011; =-=Mackey et al., 2002-=-; Mackey & Sachs, 2012; Révész, 2012; Sagarra, 2007;sTrofimovich et al., 2007) and have revealed somewhat mixed results.sRévész (2012), Sagarra (2007), and Mackey and Sachs (2012) found the expectedsa...

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...are exposed to L2 input.sOnline sources of data include eye tracking (Godfroid, Housen, & Boer , 2010), notesstaken by learners (e.g., Hanaoka, 2007; Izumi, 2002), recordings of private speech (e.g.,s=-=Ohta, 2000-=-), and think-aloud protocols (e.g., Alanen, 1995; Hama & Leow, 2010;sJourdenais et al., 1995; Leow, 1997, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh,s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., S...

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...er deliberately or non-deliberately, on items the task instructions do notsspecify. Many researchers have stressed the need for more studies of what learners dosduring planning (e.g., Batstone, 2005; =-=Ellis, 2009-=-; Mochizuki & Ortega, 2008; Ortega,s1999, 2005; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 2005). However, thus far, few (Ortega,s1995, 2005; Sangarun, 2005) have explored this area.sLearners’ perceptions. Just...

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...h as stimulated recall (Egi, 2007a; Gass & Lewis, 2007; Kim & Han, 2007;sMackey, 2006; Mackey, Al-Khalil, Atanassova, Hama, Logan-Terry, & Nakatsukasa,s2007; Mackey et al., 2002; Nabei & Swain, 2002; =-=Roberts, 1995-=-), cued immediate recalls(Philp, 2003), immediate report (Egi, 2007a), and private speech (Ohta, 2000). Thesesstudies have revealed that learners do, indeed, notice the language in recasts. Moreover,s...

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...lly produces positive effects on learners’ tasksperformance. The studies have revealed clear and consistent confirmatory effects onsfluency (e.g. Crookes, 1989; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Gilabert, 2006; =-=Kawauchi, 2005-=-;s48sMehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 2005). Forscomplexity and accuracy, with the exception of a few studies, research has also reportedsencouraging results (e.g., ...

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...idt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,sRobinson, 1997a, b), interviews (e.g., Williams, 2005), immediate recall (Philp, 2003),simmediate reports (Egi, 2004), and stimulated recall protocols (e.g., =-=Adams, 2003-=-; Egi,s2010; Mackey, 2006; Mackey et al., 2000; Nabei & Swain, 2002; Swain & Lapkin, 2002).sAmong those various measures, two types of verbal protocols, think-aloud and stimulatedsrecall, have been th...

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...s on observing learners’ cognitive processes during oral communicativesactivities because of the impossibility of engaging in conversation while simultaneouslysverbalizing one’s inner thoughts (e.g., =-=Bowles, 2010-=-; Jourdenais, 2001) and stimulatedsrecall protocols have been a preferred method of data collection. In stimulated recallsprotocols, learners first engage in L2 activity. These learners’ task performa...

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...L2 development. 1sThese include, but are not limited to: 1) thestype of recast (e.g., Loewen & Philp, 2006; Nassaji, 2009), 2) the linguistic target (e.g.,sIwashita, 2003; Leeman, 2003; Mackey, 2006; =-=Ortega & Long, 1997-=-; Yang & Lyster,s2010; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011; Witzel & Ono, 2003), 3) developmental readiness (e.g.,sMackey & Philp, 1998) or proficiency level (Ammar & Spada, 2006), 4) individualsdifferences (e.g., ...

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... planning generally produces positive effects on learners’ tasksperformance. The studies have revealed clear and consistent confirmatory effects onsfluency (e.g. Crookes, 1989; Foster & Skehan, 1996; =-=Gilabert, 2006-=-; Kawauchi, 2005;s48sMehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 2005). Forscomplexity and accuracy, with the exception of a few studies, research has also reportedsencouraging...

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...Planning, Noticing, and L2 Development.s39slearners’ noticing when they were given recasts have been undertaken using introspectivesmeasures such as stimulated recall (Egi, 2007a; Gass & Lewis, 2007; =-=Kim & Han, 2007-=-;sMackey, 2006; Mackey, Al-Khalil, Atanassova, Hama, Logan-Terry, & Nakatsukasa,s2007; Mackey et al., 2002; Nabei & Swain, 2002; Roberts, 1995), cued immediate recalls(Philp, 2003), immediate report (...

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...lexity and accuracy, with the exception of a few studies, research has also reportedsencouraging results (e.g., complexity: Crookes, 1989; Foster & Skehan, 1996, 1999;sGilabert, 2006; Kawauchi, 2005; =-=Mochizuki & Ortega, 2008-=-; Ortega, 1999; Sangarun,s2005; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 2005; Tavakoli & Skehan, 2005; Wigglesworth, 1997;sYuan & Ellis, 2003; accuracy: Crookes, 1989; Foster & Skehan, 1996, 1999; Kawauchi,s2005; Mehn...

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...nd at the same time, they also generate opportunities for learners to notice newsinformation via their positive evidence. In other words, recasts can directly assist learnerssto create new knowledge (=-=Long, 2007-=-).s28sRecasts and L2 Development: Empirical EvidencesSince the mid-1990s, the link between recasts and L2 development has beensextensively tested, and the results from those studies have largely demon...

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...8) which does notsovertly indicate to learners that they have made a mistake. However, it is widelysacknowledged that the degree of implicitness among different types of recasts variessgreatly (e.g., =-=Ellis & Sheen, 2006-=-; Nicholas, Lightbown, & Spada, 2001), and that certainstypes of recasts may be more salient than others, with some recasts’ corrective intentionssappearing quite obvious to learners. This has made re...

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...12).sResearchers, so far, have found empirical evidence that several factors influencesthe efficacy of recasts on L2 development. 1sThese include, but are not limited to: 1) thestype of recast (e.g., =-=Loewen & Philp, 2006-=-; Nassaji, 2009), 2) the linguistic target (e.g.,sIwashita, 2003; Leeman, 2003; Mackey, 2006; Ortega & Long, 1997; Yang & Lyster,s2010; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011; Witzel & Ono, 2003), 3) developmental rea...

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...) offline measures, which involve collecting data after learners are exposed to L2 input.sOnline sources of data include eye tracking (Godfroid, Housen, & Boer , 2010), notesstaken by learners (e.g., =-=Hanaoka, 2007-=-; Izumi, 2002), recordings of private speech (e.g.,sOhta, 2000), and think-aloud protocols (e.g., Alanen, 1995; Hama & Leow, 2010;sJourdenais et al., 1995; Leow, 1997, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999...

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... results in regards to the intonation of recasts (i.e.,sdeclarative vs. interrogative) have depicted a mixed pattern; specifically, more noticings40swas found with interrogative recasts in one study (=-=Mackey et al., 2007-=-), but the oppositesfindings were revealed in the other (Kim & Han, 2007). This contradicting patternssupports the conclusion drawn from Loewen and Philp’s (2006) developmental study,sbased on which t...

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...) individualsdifferences (e.g., Goo, 2011; Mackey, Philp, Egi, Fujii, & Tatsumi, 2002; Mackey &sSachs, 2012; Sagarra, 2007; Sheen, 2008; Trofimovich, Ammar, & Gatbonton, 2007),sand 5) task variables (=-=Révész, 2009-=-; Révész & Han, 2006; Romanova, 2010). Below, Iswill briefly describe claims which have been made for each factor and the empiricalsfindings from previous studies (see also Mackey, 2012).s1sThe result...

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...s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., Schmidt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,sRobinson, 1997a, b), interviews (e.g., Williams, 2005), immediate recall (Philp, 2003),simmediate reports (=-=Egi, 2004-=-), and stimulated recall protocols (e.g., Adams, 2003; Egi,s2010; Mackey, 2006; Mackey et al., 2000; Nabei & Swain, 2002; Swain & Lapkin, 2002).sAmong those various measures, two types of verbal proto...

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...ralt (2010),sfor example, found that learners rated a cognitively more complex task as being moresdifficult.sAt the same time, though, several studies investigating the effects of strategicsplanning (=-=Elder & Iwashita, 2005-=-; Tavakoli & Skehan, 2005; Wigglesworth, 2001) havesreported mixed results regarding learners’ perceptions of task difficulty. Tavakoli andsSkehan (2005) found that planners perceived tasks to be sign...

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.... This may occur because during thesrecall session, learners are exposed to the same L2 input they experienced in the initialsactivity; therefore, it creates a situation called double input-exposure (=-=Leow, 2002-=-). Thissmeans that learners have an additional opportunity for processing input which they mayshave not been able to process during the initial exposure. Additionally, this doublesexposure may possibl...

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...in this area to incorporate standardsexperimental designs involving a pre-test, a treatment, and posttests.sIn addition to these concerns with demonstrating L2 development, severalsresearchers (e.g., =-=Ellis, 2005-=-; Mackey, 2012; Robinson, 2001; Robinson & Gilabert, 2007)shave also expressed that future task planning studies must extend the scope of their focussto include the actual processes learners go throug...

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...ifferences (e.g., Goo, 2011; Mackey, Philp, Egi, Fujii, & Tatsumi, 2002; Mackey &sSachs, 2012; Sagarra, 2007; Sheen, 2008; Trofimovich, Ammar, & Gatbonton, 2007),sand 5) task variables (Révész, 2009; =-=Révész & Han, 2006-=-; Romanova, 2010). Below, Iswill briefly describe claims which have been made for each factor and the empiricalsfindings from previous studies (see also Mackey, 2012).s1sThe results from studies utili...

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...tracking (Godfroid, Housen, & Boer , 2010), notesstaken by learners (e.g., Hanaoka, 2007; Izumi, 2002), recordings of private speech (e.g.,sOhta, 2000), and think-aloud protocols (e.g., Alanen, 1995; =-=Hama & Leow, 2010-=-;sJourdenais et al., 1995; Leow, 1997, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh,s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., Schmidt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,sRobinson, 1997a, b), i...

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.... This concurrency of reporting is an obvioussadvantage; however, it has also been argued to create a risk of reactivity, which maysthreaten the validity of the verbalization data (e.g., Ellis, 2001; =-=Jourdenais, 2001-=-,sRobinson, Mackey, Gass, & Schmidt, 2012). For example, engaging in concurrent verbalsreporting while completing a task may function as an additional task, thereby, imposingsan extra processing load,...

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...task; therefore, it has been claimed that learners with higher WM may receives34smore benefit from recasts. A number of researchers have empirically tested this claims(Goo, 2011; Mackey et al., 2002; =-=Mackey & Sachs, 2012-=-; Révész, 2012; Sagarra, 2007;sTrofimovich et al., 2007) and have revealed somewhat mixed results.sRévész (2012), Sagarra (2007), and Mackey and Sachs (2012) found the expectedsassociation between WM ...

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...995; Hama & Leow, 2010;sJourdenais et al., 1995; Leow, 1997, 2000, 2001; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Suh,s2007). Offline sources include diaries (e.g., Schmidt & Frota, 1986), questionnaires (e.g.,s=-=Robinson, 1997-=-a, b), interviews (e.g., Williams, 2005), immediate recall (Philp, 2003),simmediate reports (Egi, 2004), and stimulated recall protocols (e.g., Adams, 2003; Egi,s2010; Mackey, 2006; Mackey et al., 200...

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...dy been completed before the recall. However, there have been reports thatsstimulated recall may be reactive on tasks performed following the recall session (e.g.,sAdams, 2003; Egi, 2004 however, see =-=Egi, 2008-=-). This may occur because during thesrecall session, learners are exposed to the same L2 input they experienced in the initialsactivity; therefore, it creates a situation called double input-exposure ...

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... chapter, Strategic Planning, Noticing, and L2 Development.s39slearners’ noticing when they were given recasts have been undertaken using introspectivesmeasures such as stimulated recall (Egi, 2007a; =-=Gass & Lewis, 2007-=-; Kim & Han, 2007;sMackey, 2006; Mackey, Al-Khalil, Atanassova, Hama, Logan-Terry, & Nakatsukasa,s2007; Mackey et al., 2002; Nabei & Swain, 2002; Roberts, 1995), cued immediate recalls(Philp, 2003), i...

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...; Yang & Lyster,s2010; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011; Witzel & Ono, 2003), 3) developmental readiness (e.g.,sMackey & Philp, 1998) or proficiency level (Ammar & Spada, 2006), 4) individualsdifferences (e.g., =-=Goo, 2011-=-; Mackey, Philp, Egi, Fujii, & Tatsumi, 2002; Mackey &sSachs, 2012; Sagarra, 2007; Sheen, 2008; Trofimovich, Ammar, & Gatbonton, 2007),sand 5) task variables (Révész, 2009; Révész & Han, 2006; Romanov...

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...ask variables (Révész, 2009; Révész & Han, 2006; Romanova, 2010). Below, Iswill briefly describe claims which have been made for each factor and the empiricalsfindings from previous studies (see also =-=Mackey, 2012-=-).s1sThe results from studies utilizing written recasts are not included here. This is indeed one of the areas thatsinteraction researchers should investigate, and their results have provided and will...

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... have started exploring one of the theoretical premises ofsrecasts--the theory that recasts may lead learners to notice their utterances aresnontargetlike and/or specific nontargetlike aspects (e.g., =-=Philp, 2009-=-). Examinations ofs3sHere I refrained from explaining how the two models of attention, a single-resource model and a multipleresource model, explain the results of the two studies by Révész. This is b...

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...smay focus, either deliberately or non-deliberately, on items the task instructions do notsspecify. Many researchers have stressed the need for more studies of what learners dosduring planning (e.g., =-=Batstone, 2005-=-; Ellis, 2009; Mochizuki & Ortega, 2008; Ortega,s1999, 2005; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan & Foster, 2005). However, thus far, few (Ortega,s1995, 2005; Sangarun, 2005) have explored this area.sLearners’ perc...

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... the more learning they demonstrated as well (e.g., Alanen, 1995; Leow, 1997,s2000, 2001ab; Mackey, 2006; Rosa & Leow, 2004; Rosa & O’Neill, 1999; Sachs & Polio,s2007; Sachs & Suh, 2007; however, see =-=Bell & Collins, 2009-=-). The results from thosesstudies emphasize the fact that awareness, regardless of its necessity, provides a verysstrong association with SLA.sIn the following section, I will describe theoretical arg...

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...s on their production or comprehension, thus promoting L2 development” (p. 182).sRecasts have been found to be the most frequently used type of interactionalsfeedback in instructional settings (e.g., =-=Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001-=-; Lyster &sMori, 2006; Lyster & Ranta, 1997). Gass and Mackey (2007) define a recast as “asrephrasing of an incorrect utterance using a correct form while maintaining the originalsmeaning” (p. 182) (s...

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...fore, it is essential to triangulatesdata when investigating the issue of awareness.sSummary on NoticingsThe studies with more sound methodologies as far as the measurement ofsawareness is concerned (=-=Faretta-Stutenberg & Morgan-Short, 2011-=-; Hama & Leow, 2010;sLeow, 2000) consistently suggested that noticing is necessary for L2 learning, as Schmidtsand Robinson claimed (e.g., Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001); however, furthersexamination ...

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...actors influencesthe efficacy of recasts on L2 development. 1sThese include, but are not limited to: 1) thestype of recast (e.g., Loewen & Philp, 2006; Nassaji, 2009), 2) the linguistic target (e.g.,s=-=Iwashita, 2003-=-; Leeman, 2003; Mackey, 2006; Ortega & Long, 1997; Yang & Lyster,s2010; Yilmaz & Yuksel, 2011; Witzel & Ono, 2003), 3) developmental readiness (e.g.,sMackey & Philp, 1998) or proficiency level (Ammar ...

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...s13saudio-recordings as stimuli to serve as memory aids and assist with recall. This allowssresearchers to obtain more accurate and complete responses (Bloom, 1954; Gass &sMackey, 2000; Mackey, 2012: =-=Mackey, Abbuhl, & Gass, 2012-=-).sIn regard to reactivity, it has been stated that it is less of a concern with stimulatedsrecall protocols than with think-aloud protocols (e.g., Gass & Mackey, 2000). Indeed, itscannot affect perfo...