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...ts are particularly relevant. First, trait measures of impulsivity, defined by DSM (American Psychiatric Association, 1980, 1987, 1994, 2000) derived ADHD scales and closely related constructs (e.g., =-=Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1991-=-; Conners, Sitarenios, Parker, & Epstein, 1998), are almost entirely heritable. In reviewing 21 behavioral genetics studies including over 10,000 twin pairs, Willcutt (in press) noted an average herit...

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...l regions when responding to reward, but they shift neural activity forward to the ACC when reward is removed. This is consistent with the role of the ACC in error monitoring and decision making (see =-=Holroyd & Coles, 2002-=-). Put simply, the ACC helps us detect changing reinforcement contingencies, providing for appropriate adjustment of behavior to new stimulus conditions (among other functions). In contrast to control...

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...lving (e.g., Porteus, 1965), perseverative errors during set shifting (e.g., Avila, Cuenca, Félix, Parcet, & Miranda, 2004), preference for immediate small rewards over delayed larger rewards (e.g., =-=Ainslie, 1975-=-), and performance on gambling tasks (e.g., Hooper, Luciana, Conklin, & Yarger, 2004) explain at best a modest amount of variance in ADHD scores and are poor predictors of functional outcomes. Althoug...

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...nding appear to be compromised. We have also found structural irregularities in mesolimbic ROIs associated with reward processing (see above), septohippocampal ROIs associated with trait anxiety (see =-=Gray & McNaughton, 2000-=-), and anterior cingulate ROIs associated with error monitoring/decision making (see above) among boys with externalizing behavior disorders (Sauder, Beauchaine, Gatzke-Kopp, Shannon, & Aylward, in pr...

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...Klein, Crowell, Derbidge, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009). As Robins (1966) noted nearly 50 years ago, almost all males with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) follow this developmental trajectory (see also =-=Loeber & Hay, 1997-=-). However, mere description of antisocial personality development has not resulted in meaningful treatment advances for a condition that costs the US Healthcare system about $25 billion annually in c...

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...with ADHD never develop more serious externalizing conduct (see above). It is important that emotion regulation is undergoing critical development across this age range (see, e.g., Cole & Hall, 2008; =-=Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004-=-), and differences in RSA (a peripheral biomarker of emotion regulation; see above) appear to emerge over time between children who develop versus fail to develop effective emotion regulation skills (...

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... First, trait measures of impulsivity, defined by DSM (American Psychiatric Association, 1980, 1987, 1994, 2000) derived ADHD scales and closely related constructs (e.g., Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1991; =-=Conners, Sitarenios, Parker, & Epstein, 1998-=-), are almost entirely heritable. In reviewing 21 behavioral genetics studies including over 10,000 twin pairs, Willcutt (in press) noted an average heritability coefficient of .85 for ADHD, a value r...

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...r understanding of this highly heritable trait and captures at least some heterogeneity in key behavioral outcomes, including delinquency and suicide. Since its formalization about three decades ago (=-=Cicchetti, 1984-=-; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984), developmental psychopathology has emerged as an increasingly inclusive approach to understanding maladaptive behavior (see, e.g., Cicchetti, 1990). As foreshadowed in the wri...

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...y) is experienced either too intensely or too enduringly to be adaptive (Beauchaine et al., 2007). Emotion dysregulation is therefore a broad rather than specific risk factor for psychopathology (see =-=Beauchaine, 2001-=-; Beauchaine et al., 2007). Much has been learned about the CNS substrates of emotion regulation in the past two decades. Neural structures that subserve emotion regulation include the amygdala, the s...

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...008). Contemporary transactional models, which are largely unique to developmental psychopathology (e.g., Beauchaine, Hinshaw, & Pang, 2010; Beauchaine, Klein, Crowell, Derbidge, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009; =-=Cicchetti & Toth, 1998-=-; Crowell, Beauchaine, & Linehan, 2009; Dawson, 2008), can actually be viewed as elaborations and extensions of the traditional diathesis–stress framework. Such models acknowledge that vulnerabilities...

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...attentive subtype of ADHD marks a different disorder than the hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes, with distinct clinical correlates and neural substrates (see, e.g., Beauchaine et al., 2010; =-=Milich, Balentine, & Lynam, 2001-=-). A Brief Conceptual Overview As we allude to above and have described in detail elsewhere (Beauchaine, 2009; Beauchaine, Gatzke-Kopp, & Mead, 2007; Beauchaine, Neuhaus, Zalewski, Crowell, & Potapova...

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...D, followed in rough temporal sequence by ODD, affiliation with delinquent peers, CD, substance abuse and dependence, and ASPD (see Beauchaine et al., 2010; Loeber & Hay, 1997; Loeber & Keenan, 1994; =-=Lynam, 1996-=-, 1998; Robins, 1966). However, only about half of preschoolers who exhibit ADHD and oppositionality continue on this pathway to more serious conduct problems in later childhood (Campbell, Shaw, & Gil...

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...es from behavioral genetics studies conducted with large twin samples of children and adults in which a common latent factor accounts for most of the covariation among externalizing constructs (e.g., =-=Krueger et al., 2002-=-; Tuvblad, Zheng, Raine, & Baker, 2009; Young, Stallings, Corley, Krauter, & Hewitt, 2000). This factor, which likely captures trait impulsivity (Beauchaine et al., 2009, 2010; Beauchaine & T. P. Beau...

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...lerhood with severe ADHD, followed in rough temporal sequence by ODD, affiliation with delinquent peers, CD, substance abuse and dependence, and ASPD (see Beauchaine et al., 2010; Loeber & Hay, 1997; =-=Loeber & Keenan, 1994-=-; Lynam, 1996, 1998; Robins, 1966). However, only about half of preschoolers who exhibit ADHD and oppositionality continue on this pathway to more serious conduct problems in later childhood (Campbell...

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...que to developmental psychopathology (e.g., Beauchaine, Hinshaw, & Pang, 2010; Beauchaine, Klein, Crowell, Derbidge, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009; Cicchetti & Toth, 1998; Crowell, Beauchaine, & Linehan, 2009; =-=Dawson, 2008-=-), can actually be viewed as elaborations and extensions of the traditional diathesis–stress framework. Such models acknowledge that vulnerabilities and risk factors operate at many levels of analysis...

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... inherit the low MAOA activity genotype. Despite the importance of such GeneEnvironment interaction studies in elucidating the effects of context in the expression of behavioral phenotypes (see also =-=Gottlieb, 1998-=-), the model illustrated in Figure 2 identifies a large conceptual distance between any single vulnerability (including molecular genetic) identified in the upper portion of the hourglass and any sing...

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...nal theme from which the discipline emerged (see, e.g., Beauchaine & Marsh, 2006; Cicchetti, 2008). Contemporary transactional models, which are largely unique to developmental psychopathology (e.g., =-=Beauchaine, Hinshaw, & Pang, 2010-=-; Beauchaine, Klein, Crowell, Derbidge, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009; Cicchetti & Toth, 1998; Crowell, Beauchaine, & Linehan, 2009; Dawson, 2008), can actually be viewed as elaborations and extensions of the t...

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...choolers (e.g., Brenner & Beauchaine, 2011; Shannon et al., 2007), and adolescents (e.g., Crowell et al., 2005; Sauder et al., 2012). This work includes studies of boys with ADHD, boys with CD (e.g., =-=Beauchaine, Katkin, Strassberg, & Snarr, 2001-=-; GatzkeKopp et al., 2009), and girls with borderline personality traits (e.g., Crowell et al., 2012, in press; Crowell, Beauchaine, 1. We are not suggesting that psychostimulants (e.g., methylphenida...

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...l behaviors, including those that are maladaptive, arise from complex, temporally dynamic interactions between individuals and environments. Accordingly, diathesis–stress models (e.g., Bleuler, 1963; =-=Gottesman & Shields, 1967-=-; Meehl, 1962; Rosenthal, 1963), which were articulated at least a decade before the developmental psychopathology perspective, served as one foundational theme from which the discipline emerged (see,...

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...set shifting (e.g., Avila, Cuenca, Félix, Parcet, & Miranda, 2004), preference for immediate small rewards over delayed larger rewards (e.g., Ainslie, 1975), and performance on gambling tasks (e.g., =-=Hooper, Luciana, Conklin, & Yarger, 2004-=-) explain at best a modest amount of variance in ADHD scores and are poor predictors of functional outcomes. Although such measures may hold value in identifying specific deficits among individuals an...

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...rpretation is consistent with research demonstrating that ADHD progresses to more serious conduct problems only among children within families where emotional lability is negatively reinforced (e.g., =-=Patterson, DeGarmo, & Knutson, 2000-=-). Accordingly, our current thinking is that impulsivity may be “regulated,” expressed as pure ADHD, or “dysregulated,” expressed as more serious externalizing outcomes, depending on emotion regulatio...

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...l neuroscience, clinical psychology, and prevention science, which are areas of study that were once independent and in some cases even insular (see Beauchaine, Neuhaus, Brenner, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2008; =-=Cicchetti, 2008-=-). The multidisciplinary perspective embodied in developmental psychopathology follows naturally from recognition that all behaviors, including those that are maladaptive, arise from complex, temporal...

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...al psychopathology has emerged as an increasingly inclusive approach to understanding maladaptive behavior (see, e.g., Cicchetti, 1990). As foreshadowed in the writings of its early proponents (e.g., =-=Achenbach, 1974-=-), developmental psychopathology now bridges multiple scientific disciplines, including psychiatric genetics, child psychiatry, developmental psychology, developmental neuroscience, clinical psycholog...

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...05; Richter & Gendolla, 2009). Research on PEP responding to incentives has accumulated over the last decade in studies of samples ranging in age from preschool to adulthood (Beauchaine et al., 2001; =-=Beauchaine, Hong, & Marsh, 2008-=-; Brenner & Beauchaine, 2011; Brenner et al., 2005; Bubier & Drabick, 2008; Crowell et al., 2006; Mead et al., 2004; Richter & Gendolla, 2009). These samples have included individuals with ADHD, ODD, ...

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... incorporates psychophysiological markers of autonomic activity that are reflective of dopaminergic neural networks that underlie approachmotivation (see Beauchaine, 2009; Brenner & Beauchaine, 2011; =-=Brenner, Beauchaine, & Sylvers, 2005-=-). It has long been known that impulsive individuals, including those with ADHD, ODD, CD, ASPD, and various addictive disorders, respond differently to rewards than controls. For example, in various m...

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...ion about three decades ago (Cicchetti, 1984; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984), developmental psychopathology has emerged as an increasingly inclusive approach to understanding maladaptive behavior (see, e.g., =-=Cicchetti, 1990-=-). As foreshadowed in the writings of its early proponents (e.g., Achenbach, 1974), developmental psychopathology now bridges multiple scientific disciplines, including psychiatric genetics, child psy...

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... psychiatry, developmental psychology, developmental neuroscience, clinical psychology, and prevention science, which are areas of study that were once independent and in some cases even insular (see =-=Beauchaine, Neuhaus, Brenner, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2008-=-; Cicchetti, 2008). The multidisciplinary perspective embodied in developmental psychopathology follows naturally from recognition that all behaviors, including those that are maladaptive, arise from ...

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...choolers (e.g., Connor, 2002). However, there is much less evidence for their effectiveness in preventing the progression of ADHD into more severe conduct problems in later childhood and adolescence (=-=Hinshaw, 1994-=-; Pelham, Wheeler, & Chronis, 1998). In this article our focus is squarely on understanding this heterotypically continuous progression, not on evaluating the efficacy of any particular treatment appr...

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...and autonomic reactivity while boys with CD and controls watched an empathy-eliciting film. As expected following from contemporary models of both empathy and emotional responding more broadly (e.g., =-=Eisenberg & Eggum, 2009-=-), controls exhibited synchrony between sad facial expressions and autonomic reactivity, as indexed by reduced SNS (lower skin conductance level, lengthened cardiac PEP) and increased PNS (higher RSA)...

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...g externalizing constructs (e.g., Krueger et al., 2002; Tuvblad, Zheng, Raine, & Baker, 2009; Young, Stallings, Corley, Krauter, & Hewitt, 2000). This factor, which likely captures trait impulsivity (=-=Beauchaine et al., 2009-=-, 2010; Beauchaine & T. P. Beauchaine and L. M. Gatzke-Kopp1004 Marsh, 2006), is almost entirely heritable and confers vulnerability to a wide range of externalizing outcomes as affected individuals m...

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...tapova, 2011), much of our work over the past 12 years has focused on (a) identifying neurobiological markers of trait impulsivity (e.g., Beauchaine, Gartner, & Hagen, 2000; Beauchaine & Marsh, 2006; =-=Crowell et al., 2006-=-; Gatzke-Kopp, 2011; Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2009; Sauder, Beauchaine, Shannon, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2012; Shannon, Sauder, Beauchaine, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009) and (b) determining how neurobiological vulnerabiliti...

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...rnalizing spectrum engage in excessive reward-seeking behaviors in part to upregulate a persistently underactive mesolimbic DA system, which is experienced as an aversive, irritable mood state (e.g., =-=Laakso et al., 2003-=-). Cardiac Preejection Period (PEP) Reactivity to Reward: A Peripheral Marker of Central DA Responding? Several sources of evidence now suggest that cardiac PEP, a sympathetic nervous system (SNS) med...

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... and their parents may prevent the development of conduct problems and borderline traits as children mature. Such interventions already appear to be effective among externalizing children (see, e.g., =-=Beauchaine et al., 2005-=-), even preschoolers (Webster-Stratton et al., 2011a, 2011b). It is important that our work also illustrates the potential weaknesses of interventions that target single environmental processes. Our b...

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...al, autonomic, emotional, cognitive) and that causal influences often cross levels of analysis, sometimes changing direction in response to endogenous and/or exogenous factors (e.g., Cicchetti, 2008; =-=Cicchetti & Blender, 2004-=-; Cicchetti & Dawson, 2002; Cicchetti & Posner, 2005; Mead, Beauchaine, & Shannon, 2010). The complexity of these transactional models, as well as the levels of analysis they span, requires a multidis...

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... markers of trait impulsivity and emotion dysregulation in preschoolers (e.g., Crowell et al., 2006), middle schoolers (e.g., Brenner & Beauchaine, 2011; Shannon et al., 2007), and adolescents (e.g., =-=Crowell et al., 2005-=-; Sauder et al., 2012). This work includes studies of boys with ADHD, boys with CD (e.g., Beauchaine, Katkin, Strassberg, & Snarr, 2001; GatzkeKopp et al., 2009), and girls with borderline personality...

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...on neuropsychological or other cognitive tests (and if so, what specific scales); (b) based on broad factor scores capturing behaviors that cut across functional domains; and/or (c) multifaceted (see =-=Beauchaine & Neuhaus, 2008-=-). These debates will undoubtedly continue in the foreseeable future, and we do not wish to review or resolve them here. However, three points are particularly relevant. First, trait measures of impul...

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...ognitive) and that causal influences often cross levels of analysis, sometimes changing direction in response to endogenous and/or exogenous factors (e.g., Cicchetti, 2008; Cicchetti & Blender, 2004; =-=Cicchetti & Dawson, 2002-=-; Cicchetti & Posner, 2005; Mead, Beauchaine, & Shannon, 2010). The complexity of these transactional models, as well as the levels of analysis they span, requires a multidisciplinary approach to the ...

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... ineffective in treating ADHD, nor are we suggesting that they not be used. Medication management is clearly effective for many children in reducing core ADHD symptoms, even among preschoolers (e.g., =-=Connor, 2002-=-). However, there is much less evidence for their effectiveness in preventing the progression of ADHD into more severe conduct problems in later childhood and adolescence (Hinshaw, 1994; Pelham, Wheel...

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..., 1962; Rosenthal, 1963), which were articulated at least a decade before the developmental psychopathology perspective, served as one foundational theme from which the discipline emerged (see, e.g., =-=Beauchaine & Marsh, 2006-=-; Cicchetti, 2008). Contemporary transactional models, which are largely unique to developmental psychopathology (e.g., Beauchaine, Hinshaw, & Pang, 2010; Beauchaine, Klein, Crowell, Derbidge, & Gatzk...

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...tors presented are well-established influences in increasing susceptibility to delinquency and antisocial personality development (see, e.g., Beauchaine et al., 2009; Dishion, McCord, & Poulin, 1999; =-=El-Sheikh et al., 2009-=-; Lynam et al., 2000; Mead et al., 2010; Meier, Slutske, Arndt, & Cadoret, 2008; Meier, Slutske, Heath, & Martin, 2009; Shannon et al., 2007). However, it is the premise of our work that individuals a...

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...ol problems (Paris, 1997); (d) carry significant risk for depression and suicide (American Psychiatric Association, 2000); and (e) are often characterized by traumatic experiences early in childhood (=-=Lyons-Ruth, 2008-=-; Norden, Klein, Donaldson, Pepper, & Klein, 1995). Furthermore, ASPD and BPD share several susceptibility genes (see Beauchaine et al., 2009), and similar socialization mechanisms of emotional labili...

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...sceptibility to delinquency and antisocial personality development (see, e.g., Beauchaine et al., 2009; Dishion, McCord, & Poulin, 1999; El-Sheikh et al., 2009; Lynam et al., 2000; Mead et al., 2010; =-=Meier, Slutske, Arndt, & Cadoret, 2008-=-; Meier, Slutske, Heath, & Martin, 2009; Shannon et al., 2007). However, it is the premise of our work that individuals are differentially susceptible to environmental risk factors and that adversity ...

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...ience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35. Copyright 2011 Elsevier. Adapted with permission. T. P. Beauchaine and L. M. Gatzke-Kopp1008 Consistent with theories of central and autonomic underarousal (e.g., =-=Gatzke-Kopp, Raine, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, & Steinhauer, 2004-=-), we have argued that those with impulse control disorders across the externalizing spectrum engage in excessive reward-seeking behaviors in part to upregulate a persistently underactive mesolimbic D...

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...scription of our work on borderline personality development given the overlap in etiology and high comorbidity rates between externalizing disorders and borderline pathology (Beauchaine et al., 2009; =-=Paris, 1997-=-). However, we focus primarily on our work with boys on the externalizing trajectory outlined above. Nevertheless, because borderline personality disorder (BPD) is partially defined by pathological im...

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...past 12 years has focused on (a) identifying neurobiological markers of trait impulsivity (e.g., Beauchaine, Gartner, & Hagen, 2000; Beauchaine & Marsh, 2006; Crowell et al., 2006; Gatzke-Kopp, 2011; =-=Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2009-=-; Sauder, Beauchaine, Shannon, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2012; Shannon, Sauder, Beauchaine, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009) and (b) determining how neurobiological vulnerabilities interact with environmental risk factors t...

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...the past two decades. Neural structures that subserve emotion regulation include the amygdala, the septohippocampal system, and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC; see Beauchaine et al., 2011; =-=Goldsmith, Pollak, & Davidson, 2008-=-). The vmPFC in particular inhibits amygdala activation when negative emotions are suppressed volitionally. It is important that lesions to the vmPFC impair ANS responses to emotional stimuli (Verbane...

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...ous forms of psychopathology (see, e.g., Ahs, Sollers, Furmark, Fredrikson, & Thayer, 2009; Asmundson & Stein, 1994; Beauchaine, 2001, 2012; Beauchaine et al., 2001, 2007; Crowell et al., 2005, 2006; =-=Hastings et al., 2008-=-; Neuhaus, Beauchaine, & Bernier, 2011; Porges, 2007; Rottenberg, 2007; Rottenberg, Salomon, Gross, & Gotlib, 2005; Rottenberg, Wilhelm, Gross, & Gotlib, 2002; Thayer, Friedman, & Borkovec, 1996; Vasi...

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...011), we have also conducted multiple levels of analysis research evaluating desynchrony of expressive and psychophysiological responses to emotion-eliciting stimuli among boys with conduct problems (=-=Marsh, Beauchaine, & Williams, 2008-=-). In this work, we evaluated time-linked correspondence of sad facial expressions and autonomic reactivity while boys with CD and controls watched an empathy-eliciting film. As expected following fro...

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...pp, & Mead, 2007; Beauchaine, Neuhaus, Zalewski, Crowell, & Potapova, 2011), much of our work over the past 12 years has focused on (a) identifying neurobiological markers of trait impulsivity (e.g., =-=Beauchaine, Gartner, & Hagen, 2000-=-; Beauchaine & Marsh, 2006; Crowell et al., 2006; Gatzke-Kopp, 2011; Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2009; Sauder, Beauchaine, Shannon, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2012; Shannon, Sauder, Beauchaine, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009) and (...

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...preschool children with ADHD never develop more serious externalizing conduct (see above). It is important that emotion regulation is undergoing critical development across this age range (see, e.g., =-=Cole & Hall, 2008-=-; Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004), and differences in RSA (a peripheral biomarker of emotion regulation; see above) appear to emerge over time between children who develop versus fail to develop effecti...

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...entiated from one another by electrodermal responding (Crowell et al., 2012), a peripheral biomarker of trait impulsivity (low responding)/trait anxiety (high responding; see Beauchaine et al., 2001; =-=Katkin, 1965-=-), and (b) self-injuring girls’ RSA reactivity and parental invalidation of their emotions interact to predict self-harm (Crowell, Beauchaine, Potapova, et al., in press). In cases such as these, wher...

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..., 1997); (d) carry significant risk for depression and suicide (American Psychiatric Association, 2000); and (e) are often characterized by traumatic experiences early in childhood (Lyons-Ruth, 2008; =-=Norden, Klein, Donaldson, Pepper, & Klein, 1995-=-). Furthermore, ASPD and BPD share several susceptibility genes (see Beauchaine et al., 2009), and similar socialization mechanisms of emotional lability have been observed in the families of those wi...

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...ory, a consistent body of research has emerged linking deficiencies in RSA to emotion dysregulation and various forms of psychopathology (see, e.g., Ahs, Sollers, Furmark, Fredrikson, & Thayer, 2009; =-=Asmundson & Stein, 1994-=-; Beauchaine, 2001, 2012; Beauchaine et al., 2001, 2007; Crowell et al., 2005, 2006; Hastings et al., 2008; Neuhaus, Beauchaine, & Bernier, 2011; Porges, 2007; Rottenberg, 2007; Rottenberg, Salomon, G...

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...ich more proximally mark current neuropsychological function (see Beauchaine, 2009), may offer a more useful level of analysis for considering how vulnerabilities interact with environments (Crowell, =-=Beauchaine, et al., 2008-=-; Raine, 2002). Nonheritable biological vulnerabilities including those incurred by epigentic changes to genome structure, allostatic changes in the operating ranges of vital biological systems, and o...

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...ine et al., 2010; Milich, Balentine, & Lynam, 2001). A Brief Conceptual Overview As we allude to above and have described in detail elsewhere (Beauchaine, 2009; Beauchaine, Gatzke-Kopp, & Mead, 2007; =-=Beauchaine, Neuhaus, Zalewski, Crowell, & Potapova, 2011-=-), much of our work over the past 12 years has focused on (a) identifying neurobiological markers of trait impulsivity (e.g., Beauchaine, Gartner, & Hagen, 2000; Beauchaine & Marsh, 2006; Crowell et a...

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...tions that ASPD and BPD (a) are often experienced amongmale and female offspring, respectively, from the same families (Goldman, D’Angelo, & DeMaso, 1993); (b) are often comorbid in clinical samples (=-=Becker, McGlashan, & Grilo, 2006-=-); (c) are both defined largely by impulse control problems (Paris, 1997); (d) carry significant risk for depression and suicide (American Psychiatric Association, 2000); and (e) are often characteriz...

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...gnition that all behaviors, including those that are maladaptive, arise from complex, temporally dynamic interactions between individuals and environments. Accordingly, diathesis–stress models (e.g., =-=Bleuler, 1963-=-; Gottesman & Shields, 1967; Meehl, 1962; Rosenthal, 1963), which were articulated at least a decade before the developmental psychopathology perspective, served as one foundational theme from which t...

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...ated over the last decade in studies of samples ranging in age from preschool to adulthood (Beauchaine et al., 2001; Beauchaine, Hong, & Marsh, 2008; Brenner & Beauchaine, 2011; Brenner et al., 2005; =-=Bubier & Drabick, 2008-=-; Crowell et al., 2006; Mead et al., 2004; Richter & Gendolla, 2009). These samples have included individuals with ADHD, ODD, CD, and antisocial personality traits. In each of our studies, male extern...

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...influences often cross levels of analysis, sometimes changing direction in response to endogenous and/or exogenous factors (e.g., Cicchetti, 2008; Cicchetti & Blender, 2004; Cicchetti & Dawson, 2002; =-=Cicchetti & Posner, 2005-=-; Mead, Beauchaine, & Shannon, 2010). The complexity of these transactional models, as well as the levels of analysis they span, requires a multidisciplinary approach to the study of psychopathology. ...

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...iterature links high RSA to children’s positive adjustment in the face of diverse familial risk factors for psychopathology, including interparental conflict, parental drinking, and parental divorce (=-=El-Sheikh, 2005-=-; El-Sheikh, Harger, &Whitson, 2001; Katz &Gottman, 1995). The Importance of Stimulus Conditions It is common for social scientists to misguidedly equate behavioral constructs and behavioral traits su...

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...(Shaffer, Fisher, Lucas, Mina, & Schwab-Stone, 2000) or on an interviewer-administered dimensionalized checklist of DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms (=-=Gadow & Sprafkin, 1997-=-). We did not recruit children with the purely inattentive subtype of ADHD for two reasons. Although inattention often co-occurs with hyperactivity/impulsivity, it is not specific. It is more importan...

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...els of analysis, sometimes changing direction in response to endogenous and/or exogenous factors (e.g., Cicchetti, 2008; Cicchetti & Blender, 2004; Cicchetti & Dawson, 2002; Cicchetti & Posner, 2005; =-=Mead, Beauchaine, & Shannon, 2010-=-). The complexity of these transactional models, as well as the levels of analysis they span, requires a multidisciplinary approach to the study of psychopathology. We therefore cannot expect to under...

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... externalizing behavior 1011 tems important to self-regulation and the behavioral traits they subserve. Thus, atheoretical choices of stimulus conditions lead not only to confusion in the literature (=-=Beauchaine, 2009-=-) but also to incorrect conclusions about the influences of variables across levels of analysis. We should therefore select our stimuli carefully, based on specific links between physiological process...

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..., 2012). This work includes studies of boys with ADHD, boys with CD (e.g., Beauchaine, Katkin, Strassberg, & Snarr, 2001; GatzkeKopp et al., 2009), and girls with borderline personality traits (e.g., =-=Crowell et al., 2012-=-, in press; Crowell, Beauchaine, 1. We are not suggesting that psychostimulants (e.g., methylphenidate) and certain newer compounds (e.g., atomoxetine) are ineffective in treating ADHD, nor are we sug...

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...or reward for longer periods of time than their peers both (a) when contingencies change and they begin to lose rather than win money and (b) when monetary incentives are discontinued entirely (e.g., =-=Giancola, Peterson, & Pihl, 2006-=-; Matthys, van Goozen, Snoek, & van Engeland, 2004). A principal CNS substrate of aberrant reward responding is underactivation in the ventral striatum, a phylogenically old network of neural structur...

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... et al., 2011a, 2011b) and both autonomic and central nervous system (CNS) markers of trait impulsivity and emotion dysregulation in preschoolers (e.g., Crowell et al., 2006), middle schoolers (e.g., =-=Brenner & Beauchaine, 2011-=-; Shannon et al., 2007), and adolescents (e.g., Crowell et al., 2005; Sauder et al., 2012). This work includes studies of boys with ADHD, boys with CD (e.g., Beauchaine, Katkin, Strassberg, & Snarr, 2...

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...ent Interactions Following from our discussion thus far, it has become increasingly clear that certain biological vulnerabilities interact with contextual risk to potentiate psychopathology (see also =-=Bubier, Drabick, & Breiner, 2009-=-). In addition to psychoFigure 4. The associations among (top) facial expressions of sadness and skin conductance level (SCL), (middle) preejection period (PEP), and (bottom) respiratory sinus arrhyth...

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...rabilities and exogenous risk factors presented are well-established influences in increasing susceptibility to delinquency and antisocial personality development (see, e.g., Beauchaine et al., 2009; =-=Dishion, McCord, & Poulin, 1999-=-; El-Sheikh et al., 2009; Lynam et al., 2000; Mead et al., 2010; Meier, Slutske, Arndt, & Cadoret, 2008; Meier, Slutske, Heath, & Martin, 2009; Shannon et al., 2007). However, it is the premise of our...

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...enner, Neuhaus, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2007; Szajnberg, Elliott-Wilson, Beauchaine, & Waters, 2011). Although multiple routes to delinquency have been articulated (see, e.g., Fryer, Crocker, & Mattson, 2008; =-=Gatzke-Kopp & Shannon, 2008-=-), it has long been known that antisocial adult males almost invariably traverse a trajectory that begins in toddlerhood with severe ADHD, followed in rough temporal sequence by ODD, affiliation with ...

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.... Since publication of Porges’ (1995) polyvagal theory, a consistent body of research has emerged linking deficiencies in RSA to emotion dysregulation and various forms of psychopathology (see, e.g., =-=Ahs, Sollers, Furmark, Fredrikson, & Thayer, 2009-=-; Asmundson & Stein, 1994; Beauchaine, 2001, 2012; Beauchaine et al., 2001, 2007; Crowell et al., 2005, 2006; Hastings et al., 2008; Neuhaus, Beauchaine, & Bernier, 2011; Porges, 2007; Rottenberg, 200...

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...actional models, which are largely unique to developmental psychopathology (e.g., Beauchaine, Hinshaw, & Pang, 2010; Beauchaine, Klein, Crowell, Derbidge, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009; Cicchetti & Toth, 1998; =-=Crowell, Beauchaine, & Linehan, 2009-=-; Dawson, 2008), can actually be viewed as elaborations and extensions of the traditional diathesis–stress framework. Such models acknowledge that vulnerabilities and risk factors operate at many leve...

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...ivation in mammals. Several lines of research indicate that this dopaminergic network is less responsive to reward, including monetary incentives, among impulsive individuals than among controls (see =-=Durston, 2003-=-; Gatzke-Kopp & Beauchaine, 2007b; Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2009; Sagvolden, Johansen, Aase, & Russell, 2005). Figure 2.A broadened model of externalizing conduct in which neural vulnerability interacts wi...

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...ait vulnerabilities for externalizing behavior are most likely to be found at the neural level (although this in no way precludes the potential for etiological hetereogeneity at the neural level; see =-=Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2012-=- [this issue]) and (b) research including variables spanning the greatest conceptual distance in Figure 2 will be propelled by the application of detailed theoretical models that help bridge large dev...

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...e reliably measured in representative samples. Second, attempts to operationalize impulsivity based on individual differences in very specific behaviors such as reaction time during verbal tasks (see =-=Oas, 1985-=-), errors in maze solving (e.g., Porteus, 1965), perseverative errors during set shifting (e.g., Avila, Cuenca, Félix, Parcet, & Miranda, 2004), preference for immediate small rewards over delayed la...

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...in meaningful treatment advances for a condition that costs the US Healthcare system about $25 billion annually in corrections expenditures alone, roughly $200 for each US taxpayer (Bureau of Justice =-=Statistics, 2007-=-). Our program of research provides an empirical instantiation of the multiple levels of analysis perspective, and it exemplifies the benefits conferred by using any and all available methods needed t...

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...b) determining how neurobiological vulnerabilities interact with environmental risk factors to potentiate the development of psychopathology, particularly externalizing behavior disorders (see, e.g., =-=Crowell, Beauchaine, & Lenzenweger, 2008-=-; Crowell et al., 2009; Gatzke-Kopp & Beauchaine, 2007a; Shannon, Beauchaine, Brenner, Neuhaus, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2007; Szajnberg, Elliott-Wilson, Beauchaine, & Waters, 2011). Although multiple routes to...

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... environmental risk factors to potentiate the development of psychopathology, particularly externalizing behavior disorders (see, e.g., Crowell, Beauchaine, & Lenzenweger, 2008; Crowell et al., 2009; =-=Gatzke-Kopp & Beauchaine, 2007-=-a; Shannon, Beauchaine, Brenner, Neuhaus, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2007; Szajnberg, Elliott-Wilson, Beauchaine, & Waters, 2011). Although multiple routes to delinquency have been articulated (see, e.g., Fryer, ...

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...al personality development (see, e.g., Beauchaine et al., 2009; Dishion, McCord, & Poulin, 1999; El-Sheikh et al., 2009; Lynam et al., 2000; Mead et al., 2010; Meier, Slutske, Arndt, & Cadoret, 2008; =-=Meier, Slutske, Heath, & Martin, 2009-=-; Shannon et al., 2007). However, it is the premise of our work that individuals are differentially susceptible to environmental risk factors and that adversity following environmental risk exposure i...

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... our work over the past 12 years has focused on (a) identifying neurobiological markers of trait impulsivity (e.g., Beauchaine, Gartner, & Hagen, 2000; Beauchaine & Marsh, 2006; Crowell et al., 2006; =-=Gatzke-Kopp, 2011-=-; Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2009; Sauder, Beauchaine, Shannon, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2012; Shannon, Sauder, Beauchaine, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2009) and (b) determining how neurobiological vulnerabilities interact with en...

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...oted behavioral protective effects of anxiety among children with externalizing disorders. In brief, symptoms of anxiety predict better response to certain treatments among children with ADHD and CD (=-=Jensen et al., 2001-=-) and externalizing youth with comorbid anxiety are less aggressive, regarded less negatively by peers, and experience fewer police contacts than youth with CD alone (Walker et al., 1991). Our finding...

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...ology (see, e.g., Ahs, Sollers, Furmark, Fredrikson, & Thayer, 2009; Asmundson & Stein, 1994; Beauchaine, 2001, 2012; Beauchaine et al., 2001, 2007; Crowell et al., 2005, 2006; Hastings et al., 2008; =-=Neuhaus, Beauchaine, & Bernier, 2011-=-; Porges, 2007; Rottenberg, 2007; Rottenberg, Salomon, Gross, & Gotlib, 2005; Rottenberg, Wilhelm, Gross, & Gotlib, 2002; Thayer, Friedman, & Borkovec, 1996; Vasilev, Crowell, Beauchaine, Mead, & Gatz...