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...y increase air pollution inhalation doses and have negative health effects. NO2, PM2.5 and O3 have all been linked to adverse effects on human health (Chen et al., 2008; Jerrett et al., 2009a, 2009b; =-=Pope and Dockery, 2006-=-). For these reasons, we investigated inequalities in exposure to NO2, PM2.5 and O3 for people living in proximity to public parks. A quarter-mile buffer distance to public parks was used as a proxy f...

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...t on cardiopulmonary fitness in terms of maximaldistribution of the GVP parks is displayed in Fig. 1.the regression coefficients of the characteristics from two models through a random effect Q-test (=-=Cochran, 1954-=-). The Q-test requires that the two models for comparison have the same prediction covariates. We compared inequalities in the three pollutants between three geographic domains: public parks, park-adj...

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...always had higher exposures compared to the bottom quartile counterpart for NO2, PM2.5 and O3. 4. Discussion and conclusion Children and adolescents frequent recreational opportunities close to home (=-=Gordon-Larsen et al., 2006-=-; Grow et al., 2008), especially those offering unstructured activity space, such as parks and walking/running tracks (Grow et al., 2008). Parks may play a role in purifying the environment either by ...

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...nhanced health reduced risk for all-cause mortality, heart disease, diabecological functions of urban environments (Gilbert, 1989). They support biodiversity and provide important ecosystem services (=-=Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999-=-; Crane and Kinzig, 2005; Gaston et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2005). Parks and green spaces also provide many environmental, social and psychological services that are of significance for the livabilit...

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...e cautioned that people may experience increased health risks from exposure to air contaminants during exercise because ambient air pollution affects health (Atkinson et al., 2001; Gent et al., 2003; =-=Nel, 2005-=-) and exercise may amplify respiratory uptake and deposition of air pollutants in the lungs (Campbell et al., 2005; de Nazelle and Rodriguez, 2009; Sharman, 2005). McCurdy (1997) found that activities...

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... that new onset asthma in children aged 10–18 years was associated with increased participation in team sports in communities with high concentrations of O3 but not in communities with low O3 levels (=-=McConnell et al., 2002-=-). Exercising in a park with high air pollution or in proximity to sources of air pollution may therefore induce adverse rather than beneficial health effects. Environmental justice researchers have d...

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...aracteristics. Typically, land-use regression models use land use classification (e.g., commercial, industrial, institutional), road network, traffic, population distribution and physical properties (=-=Jerrett et al., 2005-=-). These variables were also applied in our modeling process. In addition, we used new sources of land use information such as remote sensing-derived greenness and soil brightness. The resulting model...

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...ard Assessment (07-E0009), and the California Air Resources Board (06-332). n Corresponding author. Fax: +1 510 642 5815.hypertension, mental illness, cancer and musculoskeletal problems (Anon, 1996; =-=Barton and Pretty, 2010-=-; Bush et al., 2007;$Funding sources: This study is supported by the Robert Wood Johnson2005). Trees in urban areas may reduce air pollution by absorbing gaseous pollutants and storing them, thereby r...

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...y is supported by the Robert Wood Johnson2005). Trees in urban areas may reduce air pollution by absorbing gaseous pollutants and storing them, thereby removing them from the atmosphere (Nowak, 1994; =-=Nowak et al., 2006-=-). Urban Menéndez, 2007; Jim and Chen, 2006; Kong et al., 2007). Additionally, parks often serve as sites of physical act Regular physical activity is associated with enhanced health reduced risk for...

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..., such as parks and walking/running tracks (Grow et al., 2008). Parks may play a role in purifying the environment either by removal of the pollutants by plants or by buffering from emission sources (=-=Bedimo-Rung et al., 2005-=-; Crompton, 1999; Nowak et al., 2006); however, parks and adjacent neighborhoods may also be places of heightened physical activity that may increase air pollution inhalation doses and have negative h...

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...ar pattern of exposure inequalities with lowincome communities and communities of color facing a higher frequency and magnitude of impact from environmental hazards (Morello-Frosch and Jesdale, 2006; =-=Morello-Frosch and Shenassa, 2006-=-; O’Neill et al., 2003). Evidence from Canada (Jerrett et al., 2001), France (Havard et al., 2009), Sweden (Chaix et al., 2006), and England (Brainard et al., 2002) found similar patterns of inequalit...

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...on were used as a baseline against which to assess whether inequalities in and around the parks reflected broader patterns of social inequity that have been documented in Los Angeles (Marshall, 2008; =-=Morello-Frosch et al., 2002-=-; Su et al., 2009b) or were following different patterns of inequality than the entire region (e.g. parks with higher proportion of racialethnic minority composition or lower socioeconomic position ha...

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... exposure Inhalation doses Environmental justice leve park-adjacent neighborhoods where people have easy access to parks. In this study we investigated the ay a d ivity. and etes, Casey et al., 2008; =-=Woodcock et al., 2009-=-). Recent research indiContents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.els Environmenta Foundation (57279), the NCI Centers for Transdisciplinary Research on Energetics Environmental R...

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...rban parks literature to define park catchment areas, based on behavioral studies. In addition, this buffer is often codified in municipal policy and used to assess adequacy of park space provisions (=-=Dill, 2004-=-; Sister et al., 2009; Wolch et al., 2005). Within park-adjacent neigh-was then used to predict pollution levels in and around public parks in the GVP. Fig. 2. Diagram of modeling inequality in exposu...

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...other U.S. cities revealed a similar pattern of exposure inequalities with lowincome communities and communities of color facing a higher frequency and magnitude of impact from environmental hazards (=-=Morello-Frosch and Jesdale, 2006-=-; Morello-Frosch and Shenassa, 2006; O’Neill et al., 2003). Evidence from Canada (Jerrett et al., 2001), France (Havard et al., 2009), Sweden (Chaix et al., 2006), and England (Brainard et al., 2002) ...

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...8). A park experience may also reduce stress (Hull and Michael, 1995; Ulrich, 1981; Woo et al., 2009), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peace and tranquility (=-=Kaplan, 1985-=-; Song et al., 2007). Open spaces such as public parks, natural areas and golf courses may also increase the sale price of nearby homes (Conway et al., 2008; del Saz Salazar and Garcı́aLos Angeles 1. ...

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...al Forest and Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. We assumed a walking distance of less than 10 min (or 1/4 mile) was reasonable for children and adolescents, the most likely park users (=-=Wolch et al., 2005-=-). Hence, quarter-mile network buffers (i.e., reflecting actual walking distance on streets) were created using TeleAtlas Dynamap 2000 (Lebanon, NH) to define park-adjacent neighborhoods. 2.4. Polluti...

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...be places of heightened physical activity that may increase air pollution inhalation doses and have negative health effects. NO2, PM2.5 and O3 have all been linked to adverse effects on human health (=-=Chen et al., 2008-=-; Jerrett et al., 2009a, 2009b; Pope and Dockery, 2006). For these reasons, we investigated inequalities in exposure to NO2, PM2.5 and O3 for people living in proximity to public parks. A quarter-mile...

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...5). Trees in urban areas may reduce air pollution by absorbing gaseous pollutants and storing them, thereby removing them from the atmosphere (Nowak, 1994; Nowak et al., 2006). Urban Menéndez, 2007; =-=Jim and Chen, 2006-=-; Kong et al., 2007). Additionally, parks often serve as sites of physical act Regular physical activity is associated with enhanced health reduced risk for all-cause mortality, heart disease, diabeco...

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...reas may reduce air pollution by absorbing gaseous pollutants and storing them, thereby removing them from the atmosphere (Nowak, 1994; Nowak et al., 2006). Urban Menéndez, 2007; Jim and Chen, 2006; =-=Kong et al., 2007-=-). Additionally, parks often serve as sites of physical act Regular physical activity is associated with enhanced health reduced risk for all-cause mortality, heart disease, diabecological functions o...

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...g/running tracks (Grow et al., 2008). Parks may play a role in purifying the environment either by removal of the pollutants by plants or by buffering from emission sources (Bedimo-Rung et al., 2005; =-=Crompton, 1999-=-; Nowak et al., 2006); however, parks and adjacent neighborhoods may also be places of heightened physical activity that may increase air pollution inhalation doses and have negative health effects. N...

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...tig, 2008). Some researchers, however, have cautioned that people may experience increased health risks from exposure to air contaminants during exercise because ambient air pollution affects health (=-=Atkinson et al., 2001-=-; Gent et al., 2003; Nel, 2005) and exercise may amplify respiratory uptake and deposition of air pollutants in the lungs (Campbell et al., 2005; de Nazelle and Rodriguez, 2009; Sharman, 2005). McCurd...

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...onmental, social and psychological services that are of significance for the livability of modern cities and the well being of urban dwellers (Fang and Ling, 2003; Yang et al., Nowak and Dwyer, 1997; =-=Nowak et al., 1998-=-). A park experience may also reduce stress (Hull and Michael, 1995; Ulrich, 1981; Woo et al., 2009), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peace and tranquility (K...

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...l., 2005). Parks and green spaces also provide many environmental, social and psychological services that are of significance for the livability of modern cities and the well being of urban dwellers (=-=Fang and Ling, 2003-=-; Yang et al., Nowak and Dwyer, 1997; Nowak et al., 1998). A park experience may also reduce stress (Hull and Michael, 1995; Ulrich, 1981; Woo et al., 2009), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city...

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...cy and magnitude of impact from environmental hazards (Morello-Frosch and Jesdale, 2006; Morello-Frosch and Shenassa, 2006; O’Neill et al., 2003). Evidence from Canada (Jerrett et al., 2001), France (=-=Havard et al., 2009-=-), Sweden (Chaix et al., 2006), and England (Brainard et al., 2002) found similar patterns of inequality in a wide range of environmental exposures. To our knowledge, this is the first study to invest...

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...f color facing a higher frequency and magnitude of impact from environmental hazards (Morello-Frosch and Jesdale, 2006; Morello-Frosch and Shenassa, 2006; O’Neill et al., 2003). Evidence from Canada (=-=Jerrett et al., 2001-=-), France (Havard et al., 2009), Sweden (Chaix et al., 2006), and England (Brainard et al., 2002) found similar patterns of inequality in a wide range of environmental exposures. To our knowledge, thi...

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...ainst which to assess whether inequalities in and around the parks reflected broader patterns of social inequity that have been documented in Los Angeles (Marshall, 2008; Morello-Frosch et al., 2002; =-=Su et al., 2009b-=-) or were following different patterns of inequality than the entire region (e.g. parks with higher proportion of racialethnic minority composition or lower socioeconomic position had steeper gradient...

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... heart disease, diabecological functions of urban environments (Gilbert, 1989). They support biodiversity and provide important ecosystem services (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Crane and Kinzig, 2005; =-=Gaston et al., 2005-=-; Smith et al., 2005). Parks and green spaces also provide many environmental, social and psychological services that are of significance for the livability of modern cities and the well being of urba...

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...chers, however, have cautioned that people may experience increased health risks from exposure to air contaminants during exercise because ambient air pollution affects health (Atkinson et al., 2001; =-=Gent et al., 2003-=-; Nel, 2005) and exercise may amplify respiratory uptake and deposition of air pollutants in the lungs (Campbell et al., 2005; de Nazelle and Rodriguez, 2009; Sharman, 2005). McCurdy (1997) found that...

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...cance for the livability of modern cities and the well being of urban dwellers (Fang and Ling, 2003; Yang et al., Nowak and Dwyer, 1997; Nowak et al., 1998). A park experience may also reduce stress (=-=Hull and Michael, 1995-=-; Ulrich, 1981; Woo et al., 2009), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peace and tranquility (Kaplan, 1985; Song et al., 2007). Open spaces such as public parks, ...

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...es: This study is supported by the Robert Wood Johnson2005). Trees in urban areas may reduce air pollution by absorbing gaseous pollutants and storing them, thereby removing them from the atmosphere (=-=Nowak, 1994-=-; Nowak et al., 2006). Urban Menéndez, 2007; Jim and Chen, 2006; Kong et al., 2007). Additionally, parks often serve as sites of physical act Regular physical activity is associated with enhanced hea...

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...rosch and Jesdale, 2006; Morello-Frosch and Shenassa, 2006; O’Neill et al., 2003). Evidence from Canada (Jerrett et al., 2001), France (Havard et al., 2009), Sweden (Chaix et al., 2006), and England (=-=Brainard et al., 2002-=-) found similar patterns of inequality in a wide range of environmental exposures. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate exposure and inhalation inequalities at and around parks; th...

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...ller and provide a sense of peace and tranquility (Kaplan, 1985; Song et al., 2007). Open spaces such as public parks, natural areas and golf courses may also increase the sale price of nearby homes (=-=Conway et al., 2008-=-; del Saz Salazar and Garcı́aLos Angeles 1. Introduction Public parks and green spaces plambient concentrations of criteria pollutants nitrogen dioxide (NO2), fine particulate (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) a...

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...tal access information from the California Coastal Commission (Long Beach, CA) and Thomas Brothers Maps (Rand McNally, Irvine, CA), with the latter used mainly for cross-referencing and verification (=-=Sister et al., 2009-=-). From these sources, a total of over 1800 park polygons were identified. To restrict our analysis to urban areas, we excluded Angeles National Forest Los Padres National Forest and Santa Monica Moun...

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...eserved. ecisive role in defining trees also moderate temperatures by providing shade and cooling an area, thus helping reduce the risk of heat-related illnesses for city dwellers (Blum et al., 1998; =-=Cummins and Jackson, 2001-=-;Received in revised form 15 November 2010Does exposure to air pollution in urban ethnic gradients?$ Jason G. Su a,n, Michael Jerrett a, Audrey de Nazelle a Division of Environmental Health Sciences, ...

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...Plan for 21st Century Southern California (www.greenvisionsplan.net), hereafter referred to as GVP. The spatialcardiovascular outcomes than did persons living in areas with higher green space levels (=-=Hartig, 2008-=-). Some researchers, however, have cautioned that people may experience increased health risks from exposure to air contaminants during exercise because ambient air pollution affects health (Atkinson ...

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...cological functions of urban environments (Gilbert, 1989). They support biodiversity and provide important ecosystem services (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Crane and Kinzig, 2005; Gaston et al., 2005; =-=Smith et al., 2005-=-). Parks and green spaces also provide many environmental, social and psychological services that are of significance for the livability of modern cities and the well being of urban dwellers (Fang and...

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... the entire region were used as a baseline against which to assess whether inequalities in and around the parks reflected broader patterns of social inequity that have been documented in Los Angeles (=-=Marshall, 2008-=-; Morello-Frosch et al., 2002; Su et al., 2009b) or were following different patterns of inequality than the entire region (e.g. parks with higher proportion of racialethnic minority composition or lo...

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...ing TeleAtlas Dynamap 2000 (Lebanon, NH) to define park-adjacent neighborhoods. 2.4. Pollution sampling and modeling 2.4.1. Nitrogen dioxide Modeling NO2 for Los Angeles has been described elsewhere (=-=Su et al., 2009a-=-). Briefly, 201 monitors were deployed at the same locations over the winter and summer of 2006. Neighborhood NO2 measurements were then used to develop a land use regression (LUR) model for the Los A...

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...m environmental hazards (Morello-Frosch and Jesdale, 2006; Morello-Frosch and Shenassa, 2006; O’Neill et al., 2003). Evidence from Canada (Jerrett et al., 2001), France (Havard et al., 2009), Sweden (=-=Chaix et al., 2006-=-), and England (Brainard et al., 2002) found similar patterns of inequality in a wide range of environmental exposures. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate exposure and inhalation...

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... exercise because ambient air pollution affects health (Atkinson et al., 2001; Gent et al., 2003; Nel, 2005) and exercise may amplify respiratory uptake and deposition of air pollutants in the lungs (=-=Campbell et al., 2005-=-; de Nazelle and Rodriguez, 2009; Sharman, 2005). McCurdy (1997) found that activities with an hourly breathing rate between 25 and 45 L/min (e.g. walking, cycling) could lead to high intake doses of ...

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... EPA (Table 1). Recent studies from England combining objective measures of physical activity and geographic location indicate that time spent outdoors is usually more active than time spent indoors (=-=Cooper et al., 2010-=-). We surmised, therefore, that children and adolescents play high intensity activities in places with more space available and moderate intensity activities with less spaces required. Specifically, t...

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...ates (U.S.) (Fig. 1). The link between the ports of Los Angeles–Long Beach and logistics facilities in the eastern part of the metropolitan area generates high volumes of truck traffic in the region (=-=Hricko, 2008-=-; Mortimer, 2008). The region is also highly dependent on automobiles for transportation, further increasing emissions of air pollutants. Pollution levels are made worse by consistent onshore breezes ...

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...ions of air pollutants. Pollution levels are made worse by consistent onshore breezes that push pollution inland toward steep mountain ranges. Because of this, temperature inversions occur regularly (=-=Moore et al., 2007-=-) and air pollution is kept near the ground. Los Angeles still ranks as the most polluted city in the United States (Sciences Daily, 2007), even though its pollution levels have declined over the past...

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...erience may also reduce stress (Hull and Michael, 1995; Ulrich, 1981; Woo et al., 2009), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peace and tranquility (Kaplan, 1985; =-=Song et al., 2007-=-). Open spaces such as public parks, natural areas and golf courses may also increase the sale price of nearby homes (Conway et al., 2008; del Saz Salazar and Garcı́aLos Angeles 1. Introduction Public...

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... parks Air pollution exposure Inhalation doses Environmental justice leve park-adjacent neighborhoods where people have easy access to parks. In this study we investigated the ay a d ivity. and etes, =-=Casey et al., 2008-=-; Woodcock et al., 2009). Recent research indiContents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.els Environmenta Foundation (57279), the NCI Centers for Transdisciplinary Research on Ene...

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...ies and the well being of urban dwellers (Fang and Ling, 2003; Yang et al., Nowak and Dwyer, 1997; Nowak et al., 1998). A park experience may also reduce stress (Hull and Michael, 1995; Ulrich, 1981; =-=Woo et al., 2009-=-), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peace and tranquility (Kaplan, 1985; Song et al., 2007). Open spaces such as public parks, natural areas and golf courses m...

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..., and the California Air Resources Board (06-332). n Corresponding author. Fax: +1 510 642 5815.hypertension, mental illness, cancer and musculoskeletal problems (Anon, 1996; Barton and Pretty, 2010; =-=Bush et al., 2007-=-;$Funding sources: This study is supported by the Robert Wood Johnson2005). Trees in urban areas may reduce air pollution by absorbing gaseous pollutants and storing them, thereby removing them from t...

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... of modern cities and the well being of urban dwellers (Fang and Ling, 2003; Yang et al., Nowak and Dwyer, 1997; Nowak et al., 1998). A park experience may also reduce stress (Hull and Michael, 1995; =-=Ulrich, 1981-=-; Woo et al., 2009), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peace and tranquility (Kaplan, 1985; Song et al., 2007). Open spaces such as public parks, natural areas ...

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...status or racial-ethnic representation) between any two geographic domains (e.g., parks vs park neighborhoods) was estimated by comparing J.G. Su et al. / Environmental Research 111 (2011) 319–328320(=-=Yu et al., 2004-=-). A cohort study also showed that new onset asthma in children aged 10–18 years was associated with increased participation in team sports in communities with high concentrations of O3 but not in com...

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...l Health Hazard Assessment (07-E0009), and the California Air Resources Board (06-332). n Corresponding author. Fax: +1 510 642 5815.hypertension, mental illness, cancer and musculoskeletal problems (=-=Anon, 1996-=-; Barton and Pretty, 2010; Bush et al., 2007;$Funding sources: This study is supported by the Robert Wood Johnson2005). Trees in urban areas may reduce air pollution by absorbing gaseous pollutants an...

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...r Inc. All rights reserved. ecisive role in defining trees also moderate temperatures by providing shade and cooling an area, thus helping reduce the risk of heat-related illnesses for city dwellers (=-=Blum et al., 1998-=-; Cummins and Jackson, 2001;Received in revised form 15 November 2010Does exposure to air pollution in urban ethnic gradients?$ Jason G. Su a,n, Michael Jerrett a, Audrey de Nazelle a Division of Envi...

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...ig. 1). The link between the ports of Los Angeles–Long Beach and logistics facilities in the eastern part of the metropolitan area generates high volumes of truck traffic in the region (Hricko, 2008; =-=Mortimer, 2008-=-). The region is also highly dependent on automobiles for transportation, further increasing emissions of air pollutants. Pollution levels are made worse by consistent onshore breezes that push pollut...

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...also provide many environmental, social and psychological services that are of significance for the livability of modern cities and the well being of urban dwellers (Fang and Ling, 2003; Yang et al., =-=Nowak and Dwyer, 1997-=-; Nowak et al., 1998). A park experience may also reduce stress (Hull and Michael, 1995; Ulrich, 1981; Woo et al., 2009), enhance contemplation, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peac...

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...ecause of this, temperature inversions occur regularly (Moore et al., 2007) and air pollution is kept near the ground. Los Angeles still ranks as the most polluted city in the United States (Sciences =-=Daily, 2007-=-), even though its pollution levels have declined over the past three decades. This study focuses on an area of over 5.5 million acres that spans five Los Angeles area watersheds: the Los Angeles Rive...

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...(Atkinson et al., 2001; Gent et al., 2003; Nel, 2005) and exercise may amplify respiratory uptake and deposition of air pollutants in the lungs (Campbell et al., 2005; de Nazelle and Rodriguez, 2009; =-=Sharman, 2005-=-). McCurdy (1997) found that activities with an hourly breathing rate between 25 and 45 L/min (e.g. walking, cycling) could lead to high intake doses of ozone (O3) for children and adolescents aged 6–...