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...uture research is needed to shed light on these findings. A third implication of interest deals with the role of the social context as a source of influence on motivation. Three points must be made in this respect. First, as shown by the present results, the impact of social context on motivation is mediated by the individual's perceptions of competence and autonomy. Thus, others' behaviors will influence our motivation only in cases in which they affect our perceptions of competence and autonomy. Several theories, such as cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986; Bandura &; Schunk, 1981), and achievement goal theory (Ames, 1992), propose such a mediation with respect to perceptions of competence. Although some support has been found for the mediational role of perceptions of competence on intrinsic motivation (e.g., Harackiewicz & Larson, 1986; Reeve & Deci, 1996; Vallerand & Reid, 1984, 1988), most research has focused on the direct influence of social agents (e.g., teachers and parents) on students' motivation (e.g., Deci et al., 1981; Gottfried et al., 1994) or has assessed the link between social agents1 behaviors and students' perceptions of com...

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...elf-determined motivation positively predicted attendance at weight loss program meetings. Thus, the present findings reinforce the notion that motivation is a powerful force that leads to action and support self-determination theory's (Deci & Ryan, 1985) position on the role of self-determination in human behavior. In certain instances, we believe, the impact of motivation on behavior is not direct but is mediated by behavioral intentions. Such a position is in line with abundant research in the attitude literature that reveals that intentions mediate the impact of attitudes on behavior (see Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). We believe that such a process is likely to take place when there is a time lag between the assessment of motivation and the display of behavior. Such is the case with the dropout process, where students first form behavioral intentions of dropping out of (or staying in) school, which are implemented several months later. We believe that considering behavioral intentions in such situations should lead to at least three advantages. First, incorporating behavioral intentions in the motivational model may better reflect the actual process through which people come to implement behavior. Often, ...

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...979) reveals that children's perceptions of adults in authority positions are quite accurate and in fact more accurate than adults' reports of their own behaviors. We therefore feel that our strategy was appropriate. 2 That some of the scales used in this study yielded alphas in the .50 and .60 range may be regarded as problematic by some researchers. We feel that there is no need for concern on this issue, however, because internal consistency that is based on the alpha coefficient may not be an adequate reliability estimate for a scale made up of a small number of items. Indeed, as noted by Cronbach (1951}, given a small number of items, low alphas can underestimate scale item intercorrelations that are the basis for internal consistency. For instance, given the same average item intercorrelations, the three-item teacher autonomy-support scale, which yielded an alpha coefficient of .56 in this study, would produce an alpha of .81 if there were eight items. With short scales such as the ones used in this study, the adequacy of the underlying measurement model is generally more indicative of the quality of contruct measurement than internal consistency (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991; see also Smith...

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...eir parents force them to do so are externally regulated. With introjected regulation, the individual has only partially internalized previous external pressure or inducement to engage in the activity. For instance, students might say that they do their homework because they would feel guilty if they did not. When motivated out of identified regulation, the individual performs the behavior out of choice and values it as being important. Thus, students might go to school because they feel that this is the path they have chosen to follow to have access to the career they have selected. Finally, Deci and Ryan (1985) have suggested that a third motivational concept is necessary to provide a more complete account of human behavior. This concept, termed amotivation, refers to the relative absence of motivation. Individuals who are amotivated engage in the activity without any sense of purpose and do not see any relationship between their actions and the consequences of such behavior. Much research supports the validity of the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation in education. For instance, results from several studies have supported the validity of different subscales that assess t...

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...ada Manpower and Immigration, 1990) and in the United States (Hammack, 1986; Mann, 1986). Dropping out of school is not only an educational problem but a significant social problem as well. Indeed, it has obvious psychological, economical, and social ramifications. For instance, dropouts may undergo a loss of selfesteem, turn to drugs, and become a financial burden to society (Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Tidwell, 1988). A survey of research on high school dropout reveals that one factor in a student's decision to drop out of school may be motivation (see Bean, 1985; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988; Tinto, 1975). The purpose of this study was to propose and test Robert J. Vallerand and Frederic Guay, Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Comportement Social, Departement de Psychologie, Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Montreal, Qu6bec, Canada; Michelle S. Fortier, School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Preparation of this article was facilitated through a grant and a doctoral fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and grants from le Fonds pour la Formation des Chercheurs et l'Aide a la Recherche and the University du Quebec a Montreal...

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...s of reliability (Ryan & Connell, 1989, Study 1; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand, Blais, Briere, & Pelletier, 1989; Vallerand et al., 1992). Furthermore, as we demonstrate below, the different subscales have been found to relate as predicted by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) to various educational determinants and consequences, thereby providing construct validity for the different concepts underlying the scales. On the Social Determinants of School Motivation Research reveals that the social context in education can have an important influence on motivation (see Ames, 1992). The motivational model posits that three social agents in particular play a major role in influencing students' motivation: teachers, parents, and the school administration. These social agents may affect students in more than one way. One dimension that appears fundamental with respect to motivation, however, is whether these social agents support the students' autonomy or control their behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1987). Providing students with autonomy support implies allowing them to make certain choices and decisions about their schooling. Such a practice increases students' self-determined m...

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...ur dropout sample and that they displayed a more self-determined motivational profile than boys. These findings are also in line with those of Vallerand and B issonnette (1992), who showed that significantly fewer women than men dropped out of a college course (9.5% vs. 16.2%) and that women displayed a more self-determined motivational profile than men. The present findings, which show that girls display a more self-determined motivational profile than boys, are intriguing because they seem to run counter to past findings that women display higher levels of learned helplessness than men (see Dweck, 1986). However, such research has typically used attributional measures and has been conducted in laboratory settings. The present research used motivational measures and was conducted in an educational setting. Thus, methodological differences may explain the divergent findings. It should be noted that the present findings on gender differences have been replicated numerous times in the United States (Ryan & Connell, 1989, Study 1), Quebec (Vallerand et al., 1989), and Ontario (Vallerand et al., 1992) in education as well as in several other 1' Using the LISREL program, we tested an additional mod...

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... items. Indeed, as noted by Cronbach (1951}, given a small number of items, low alphas can underestimate scale item intercorrelations that are the basis for internal consistency. For instance, given the same average item intercorrelations, the three-item teacher autonomy-support scale, which yielded an alpha coefficient of .56 in this study, would produce an alpha of .81 if there were eight items. With short scales such as the ones used in this study, the adequacy of the underlying measurement model is generally more indicative of the quality of contruct measurement than internal consistency (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991; see also Smith, Shutz, Smoll, & Ptacek, 1995 for a similar argument). As the results of the structural equation modeling revealed, the measurement model was adequate. Overall, it would thus appear that the scales used in this study had acceptable levels of reliability. MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT 1165 agreement (7). There was a correlation of .63 between these two items. Finally, in the fifth and last part of the questionnaire, participants were asked to indicate their age, student identification number, gender, and date of birth. Procedure In October, during the fall semester,...

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...mpetence was added to the motivational model. Results revealed that this model had the same fit as that of the motivational model (GFI = .96, AGFI = .94). The beta linking perceived competence and dropout behavior was only - .09. The same basic findings were obtained in separate analyses for males (GFI = .95, AGFI = .94; beta for perceived competence = - .12) and females (GFI = .95, AGFI = .93; beta for competence = —.06). Overall, the results of these analyses provide additional support for the validity of the motivational model. 1170 VALLERAND, FORTIER, AND GUAY target, situation, and time (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977). In the present study, correspondence was achieved only with respect to the first two elements. This may explain why the link between intentions and behavior was only of moderate magnitude.10 By assessing behavior and intentions at the same level of correspondence, future researchers should be able to show an intimate relation between these two constructs. Finally, the integration of behavioral intentions in our motivational model allows us to make use of knowledge acquired from the attitude-behavior literature in order to better predict and understand behavior. For instance, attitude researc...

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... human motivation. In this vein, the role of friends and fellow students deserves scientific scrutiny in light of research that has revealed that children who entertain negative relationships with others are at risk of dropping out (Parker & Asher, 1987) and that by Grade 7, high school dropouts tend to affiliate with students who are already at risk for dropping out (Cairns, Cairns, & Neckerman, 1989). It should also be noted that in the present study, we focused on autonomy-supportive behavior from important social agents. However, Deci, Ryan, and then: colleagues (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Deci & Ryan, 1991; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Grolnick, et al., 1991) have proposed that two other factors from the environment may also affect students' perceptions of competence and autonomy: structure and involvement. Structure refers to clear guidelines about ways to interact with the environment that lead to desired outcomes, whereas involvement denotes the expression of affection and caring toward a child. Research has shown that parental involvement (Grolnick et al., 1991; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994) and teacher-engineered classroom structures (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) are positively related to adaptive ou...

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... concepts underlying the scales. On the Social Determinants of School Motivation Research reveals that the social context in education can have an important influence on motivation (see Ames, 1992). The motivational model posits that three social agents in particular play a major role in influencing students' motivation: teachers, parents, and the school administration. These social agents may affect students in more than one way. One dimension that appears fundamental with respect to motivation, however, is whether these social agents support the students' autonomy or control their behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1987). Providing students with autonomy support implies allowing them to make certain choices and decisions about their schooling. Such a practice increases students' self-determined motivation (i.e., they develop high levels of intrinsic motivation and identification but low levels of amotivation and external regulation; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Conversely, controlling students' behaviors signifies telling them what to do and how to do it, with little respect for their own choices and orientations. This last practice undermines students' self-determined motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987). Much resear...

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...evealed that such a perspective is fruitful and ecologically valid, because all three social agents were found to influence students' motivation through their impact on their perceptions of competence, autonomy, or both. Future research from such a multivariate perspective is encouraged, as it could lead to a more complete understanding of the processes involved in human motivation. In this vein, the role of friends and fellow students deserves scientific scrutiny in light of research that has revealed that children who entertain negative relationships with others are at risk of dropping out (Parker & Asher, 1987) and that by Grade 7, high school dropouts tend to affiliate with students who are already at risk for dropping out (Cairns, Cairns, & Neckerman, 1989). It should also be noted that in the present study, we focused on autonomy-supportive behavior from important social agents. However, Deci, Ryan, and then: colleagues (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Deci & Ryan, 1991; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Grolnick, et al., 1991) have proposed that two other factors from the environment may also affect students' perceptions of competence and autonomy: structure and involvement. Structure refers to clear guidelines ...

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...ntrinsic motivation and identified regulation) to lead to positive outcomes more readily than non-self-determined forms of motivation (amotivation and external regulation), which have been found to induce negative outcomes. These findings have been obtained with several educational outcomes, such as effort, positive emotions experienced in class, psychological adjustment at school, quality of conceptual learning, concentration, satisfaction with one's academic life, school performance, and intentions of continuing one's schooling (e.g., Fortier, Vallerand, & Guay, 1995; Gottfried, 1985, 1990; Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Grolnick et al., 1991; Harter & Connell, 1984; Lloyd & Barenblatt, 1984; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand et al., 1989; Vallerand et al,, 1993). In addition, much experimental (laboratory) research reveals that individuals who are induced to become externally regulated persist much less than those who are intrinsically motivated (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, for a review). This is especially likely to be the case when subsequent engagement in the activity is not compulsory. We feel that the parallel with high school dropout is striking. Although certain students do dr...

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...p high levels of intrinsic motivation and identification but low levels of amotivation and external regulation; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Conversely, controlling students' behaviors signifies telling them what to do and how to do it, with little respect for their own choices and orientations. This last practice undermines students' self-determined motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987). Much research supports this line of reasoning. For instance, controlling behavior from the teacher (Deci, Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) and parents (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1994; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991) has been found to induce losses in students' intrinsic motivation toward school. No study so far has assessed the role of the school administration on students' motivation. However, evidence exists that schools vary in general climate and that climates may affect students' motivation (see Eccles, 1993). Because of its authority position at school, the school administration, we believe, is in a prime position to influence this general school climate and thus have an impact on students' sense of autonomy and competence, as well as on their school motivation. It is...

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...nd behavior was only of moderate magnitude.10 By assessing behavior and intentions at the same level of correspondence, future researchers should be able to show an intimate relation between these two constructs. Finally, the integration of behavioral intentions in our motivational model allows us to make use of knowledge acquired from the attitude-behavior literature in order to better predict and understand behavior. For instance, attitude research has revealed the existence of moderators of the link between attitude and intentions or behavior. An individual's direct experience with a task (Fazio & Zanna, 1981) and degree of self-monitoring (Snyder, 1979) have been found to moderate this relation. Future researchers might show that these variables also act as moderators of the link between motivation and intentions or behavior. A second implication of the present findings for motivation theory and research is that there is an important parallel between the present findings and those from the experimental (laboratory) research on intrinsic motivation. Such research typically induces a loss of intrinsic motivation through a manipulated independent variable (e.g., a controlling reward, such as money) a...

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... the effects of intrinsic motivation (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, for review), more recent research based on the tenets of selfdetermination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) has dealt with the whole spectrum of motivations. The various forms of motivation are posited to differ in their inherent levels of self-determination. Listed from low to high levels of self-determination, these motivations are amotivation, external regulation, introjection, identification, and intrinsic motivation. Because self-determination has been hypothesized to be associated with enhanced psychological functioning (Deci, 1980; Deci & Ryan, 1985), one would expect self-determined forms of motivation (intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) to lead to positive outcomes more readily than non-self-determined forms of motivation (amotivation and external regulation), which have been found to induce negative outcomes. These findings have been obtained with several educational outcomes, such as effort, positive emotions experienced in class, psychological adjustment at school, quality of conceptual learning, concentration, satisfaction with one's academic life, school performance, and intentions of continuing one...

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... ranging from not at all in agreement ( I ) to completely in agreement (7). These scales were adapted from the Perceived Interpersonal Style Scale (Pelletier, 1992), which has been found to be a reliable and valid measure of perceived interpersonal style. For instance, in the sports context, the Autonomy Support scale yielded a Cronbach alpha of .76, whereas the construct validity was supported through correlations that showed autonomy support from the coach's part to be positively related to athletes' intrinsic motivation and identified regulation but negatively related to their amotivation (Pelletier et al., 1995). In the second part of the questionnaire, participants completed two scales that assessed educational motivational mediators (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991), namely, perceived school competence and perceived autonomy at school. The Perceived School Competence Scale measured students" perceptions of competence in the academic domain. This scale consisted of three items (e.g., "I consider myself to be a good student") and had a Cronbach alpha of .61. Adapted from the Perceived Competence in Life Domains Scale (Losier, Vallerand, & Blais, 1993), it assesses perceptions of competence toward various lif...

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...ir high school diplomas, both in Canada (Canada Manpower and Immigration, 1990) and in the United States (Hammack, 1986; Mann, 1986). Dropping out of school is not only an educational problem but a significant social problem as well. Indeed, it has obvious psychological, economical, and social ramifications. For instance, dropouts may undergo a loss of selfesteem, turn to drugs, and become a financial burden to society (Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Tidwell, 1988). A survey of research on high school dropout reveals that one factor in a student's decision to drop out of school may be motivation (see Bean, 1985; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988; Tinto, 1975). The purpose of this study was to propose and test Robert J. Vallerand and Frederic Guay, Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Comportement Social, Departement de Psychologie, Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Montreal, Qu6bec, Canada; Michelle S. Fortier, School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Preparation of this article was facilitated through a grant and a doctoral fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and grants from le Fonds pour la Formation des Chercheurs et l'Aide a la Rec...

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...opout students, relative to persistent students, indicated pursuing their schooling much more because of parental pressure and much less because of their own wishes or goal directedness. These results tend to support the hypothesis that dropout students may have internalized a non-self-determined motivational orientation. Although several studies from both the motivation and dropout literatures support the different parts of the motivational model, only one, to the best of our knowledge, has focused on the school dropout issue from an intrinsic-extrinsic motivation perspective. In that study, Vallerand and Bissonnette (1992) assessed the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in dropping out of a compulsory course at the college level. Over 1,000 Ist-year students from the Cegep level (a 2-year institution between high school and university in the Quebec educational system) completed the French version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS; Vallerand et al., 1989) at the beginning of the term. The following term, students who had dropped from the course were identified. Scores on the questionnaire they had completed the previous term were compared with those of students who had persisted. Results revealed tha...

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... forms of motivation (intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) to lead to positive outcomes more readily than non-self-determined forms of motivation (amotivation and external regulation), which have been found to induce negative outcomes. These findings have been obtained with several educational outcomes, such as effort, positive emotions experienced in class, psychological adjustment at school, quality of conceptual learning, concentration, satisfaction with one's academic life, school performance, and intentions of continuing one's schooling (e.g., Fortier, Vallerand, & Guay, 1995; Gottfried, 1985, 1990; Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Grolnick et al., 1991; Harter & Connell, 1984; Lloyd & Barenblatt, 1984; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand et al., 1989; Vallerand et al,, 1993). In addition, much experimental (laboratory) research reveals that individuals who are induced to become externally regulated persist much less than those who are intrinsically motivated (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, for a review). This is especially likely to be the case when subsequent engagement in the activity is not compulsory. We feel that the parallel with high school dropout is striking. Al...

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...vation through their impact on their perceptions of competence, autonomy, or both. Future research from such a multivariate perspective is encouraged, as it could lead to a more complete understanding of the processes involved in human motivation. In this vein, the role of friends and fellow students deserves scientific scrutiny in light of research that has revealed that children who entertain negative relationships with others are at risk of dropping out (Parker & Asher, 1987) and that by Grade 7, high school dropouts tend to affiliate with students who are already at risk for dropping out (Cairns, Cairns, & Neckerman, 1989). It should also be noted that in the present study, we focused on autonomy-supportive behavior from important social agents. However, Deci, Ryan, and then: colleagues (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Deci & Ryan, 1991; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Grolnick, et al., 1991) have proposed that two other factors from the environment may also affect students' perceptions of competence and autonomy: structure and involvement. Structure refers to clear guidelines about ways to interact with the environment that lead to desired outcomes, whereas involvement denotes the expression of affection and caring toward a...

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...and decisions about their schooling. Such a practice increases students' self-determined motivation (i.e., they develop high levels of intrinsic motivation and identification but low levels of amotivation and external regulation; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Conversely, controlling students' behaviors signifies telling them what to do and how to do it, with little respect for their own choices and orientations. This last practice undermines students' self-determined motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987). Much research supports this line of reasoning. For instance, controlling behavior from the teacher (Deci, Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) and parents (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1994; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991) has been found to induce losses in students' intrinsic motivation toward school. No study so far has assessed the role of the school administration on students' motivation. However, evidence exists that schools vary in general climate and that climates may affect students' motivation (see Eccles, 1993). Because of its authority position at school, the school administration, we believe, is in a prime position to influence this general school climate and thus have an ...

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...impact on students' sense of autonomy and competence, as well as on their school motivation. It is important to emphasize that the motivational model posits that social agents do not influence students' motivation directly. Rather, in line with self-determination theory, social agents' effects are hypothesized to be mediated by students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. Some evidence for this proposiMOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT 1163 tion exists. For instance, research has shown that the impact of feedback from a supervisor (Harackiewicz & Larson, 1986) or the experimenter (Vallerand & Reid, 1984, 1988) on intrinsic motivation is mediated by individuals' perceptions of competence. Recent research by Reeve and Deci (1996) has also shown that the impact of the social context on intrinsic motivation is mediated by perceptions of both competence and autonomy. Dropping Out of High School as a Motivational Consequence Considerable research reveals that motivation can lead to important outcomes. Although most studies have focused on the effects of intrinsic motivation (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, for review), more recent research based on the tenets of selfdetermination theory (Deci & Ryan,...

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...urpose and do not see any relationship between their actions and the consequences of such behavior. Much research supports the validity of the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation in education. For instance, results from several studies have supported the validity of different subscales that assess the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation. Thus, the various subscales have been found to distinguish themselves clearly in factor analyses and to display adequate levels of reliability (Ryan & Connell, 1989, Study 1; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand, Blais, Briere, & Pelletier, 1989; Vallerand et al., 1992). Furthermore, as we demonstrate below, the different subscales have been found to relate as predicted by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) to various educational determinants and consequences, thereby providing construct validity for the different concepts underlying the scales. On the Social Determinants of School Motivation Research reveals that the social context in education can have an important influence on motivation (see Ames, 1992). The motivational model posits that three social agents in particular play a major role in influencing students...

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...y. Second, these low perceptions of competence and autonomy, in turn, diminish students' self-determined motivation. Third, low levels of self-determined motivation lead students to develop intentions to drop out of school. Finally, these intentions are later acted on, when it is possible to do so. The conceptual and empirical evidence supporting the model is presented below. Motivation Toward School One motivational approach that has been found useful in education posits that behavior can be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated (Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1989; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Lepper & Hodell, 1989). Intrinsic motivation is generally defined as the fact of engaging in an activity for the 1161 1162 VALLERAND, FORTIER, AND GUAY Figure 1. The motivational model of high school dropout. pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation itself (Deci, 1975). For instance, a student who reads a history book because she finds it interesting displays intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is experienced when someone engages in an activity as a means to an end. Three major types of extrinsic motivation have been proposed (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Ryan, Connell, & Deci, 198...

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...-determined motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987). Much research supports this line of reasoning. For instance, controlling behavior from the teacher (Deci, Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) and parents (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1994; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991) has been found to induce losses in students' intrinsic motivation toward school. No study so far has assessed the role of the school administration on students' motivation. However, evidence exists that schools vary in general climate and that climates may affect students' motivation (see Eccles, 1993). Because of its authority position at school, the school administration, we believe, is in a prime position to influence this general school climate and thus have an impact on students' sense of autonomy and competence, as well as on their school motivation. It is important to emphasize that the motivational model posits that social agents do not influence students' motivation directly. Rather, in line with self-determination theory, social agents' effects are hypothesized to be mediated by students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. Some evidence for this proposiMOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF H...

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...he motivational model posits that social agents do not influence students' motivation directly. Rather, in line with self-determination theory, social agents' effects are hypothesized to be mediated by students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. Some evidence for this proposiMOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT 1163 tion exists. For instance, research has shown that the impact of feedback from a supervisor (Harackiewicz & Larson, 1986) or the experimenter (Vallerand & Reid, 1984, 1988) on intrinsic motivation is mediated by individuals' perceptions of competence. Recent research by Reeve and Deci (1996) has also shown that the impact of the social context on intrinsic motivation is mediated by perceptions of both competence and autonomy. Dropping Out of High School as a Motivational Consequence Considerable research reveals that motivation can lead to important outcomes. Although most studies have focused on the effects of intrinsic motivation (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, for review), more recent research based on the tenets of selfdetermination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) has dealt with the whole spectrum of motivations. The various forms of motivation are posited to differ in their i...

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..., one would expect self-determined forms of motivation (intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) to lead to positive outcomes more readily than non-self-determined forms of motivation (amotivation and external regulation), which have been found to induce negative outcomes. These findings have been obtained with several educational outcomes, such as effort, positive emotions experienced in class, psychological adjustment at school, quality of conceptual learning, concentration, satisfaction with one's academic life, school performance, and intentions of continuing one's schooling (e.g., Fortier, Vallerand, & Guay, 1995; Gottfried, 1985, 1990; Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Grolnick et al., 1991; Harter & Connell, 1984; Lloyd & Barenblatt, 1984; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand et al., 1989; Vallerand et al,, 1993). In addition, much experimental (laboratory) research reveals that individuals who are induced to become externally regulated persist much less than those who are intrinsically motivated (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, for a review). This is especially likely to be the case when subsequent engagement in the activity is not compulsory. We feel that the parallel with high school dropou...

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...ale, measured students' feelings of freedom in the school environment. It also consisted of three items (e.g., "I feel controlled at school"; this scale used reverse scoring) and had an alpha of .54. This scale was adapted from the Perceived Autonomy Toward Life Domains Scale (Blais, Vallerand, & Lachance, 1990) and assesses one's perceptions of autonomy in different life domains, including education. The Education subscale has been found to possess adequate internal consistency (a — .71) and lo relate positively to intrinsic motivation and identified regulation but negatively to amotivation (Blais et al., 1990). It thus appears to be a reliable and valid measure of perceived autonomy. Responses to these two scales were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from not at all in agreement (1) to completely in agreement (7). The third part of the questionnaire was the French version of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS; Vallerand et al., 1992,1993), namely L'Echelle de Motivation en Education (EME; Vallerand et al., 1989), which assesses students' motivation toward educational activities. The EME is composed of seven subscales. Three subscales assess types of intrinsic motivation: intrinsic motivation...

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...dropout represents an important problem that affects thousands of students each year. Roughly one third of all students will drop out of high school without having received their high school diplomas, both in Canada (Canada Manpower and Immigration, 1990) and in the United States (Hammack, 1986; Mann, 1986). Dropping out of school is not only an educational problem but a significant social problem as well. Indeed, it has obvious psychological, economical, and social ramifications. For instance, dropouts may undergo a loss of selfesteem, turn to drugs, and become a financial burden to society (Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Tidwell, 1988). A survey of research on high school dropout reveals that one factor in a student's decision to drop out of school may be motivation (see Bean, 1985; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988; Tinto, 1975). The purpose of this study was to propose and test Robert J. Vallerand and Frederic Guay, Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Comportement Social, Departement de Psychologie, Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Montreal, Qu6bec, Canada; Michelle S. Fortier, School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Preparation of this article was facilitated through a grant and ...

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...nts' self-determined motivation (i.e., they develop high levels of intrinsic motivation and identification but low levels of amotivation and external regulation; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Conversely, controlling students' behaviors signifies telling them what to do and how to do it, with little respect for their own choices and orientations. This last practice undermines students' self-determined motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987). Much research supports this line of reasoning. For instance, controlling behavior from the teacher (Deci, Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) and parents (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1994; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991) has been found to induce losses in students' intrinsic motivation toward school. No study so far has assessed the role of the school administration on students' motivation. However, evidence exists that schools vary in general climate and that climates may affect students' motivation (see Eccles, 1993). Because of its authority position at school, the school administration, we believe, is in a prime position to influence this general school climate and thus have an impact on students' sense of autonomy and competence, as well as on their s...

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...eading to actual dropout behavior. This model was tested with high school students (N = 4,537) by means of a prospective design. Results from analyses of variance and a structural equation modeling analysis (with L1SREL) were found to support the model for all participants and for each gender separately. High school dropout represents an important problem that affects thousands of students each year. Roughly one third of all students will drop out of high school without having received their high school diplomas, both in Canada (Canada Manpower and Immigration, 1990) and in the United States (Hammack, 1986; Mann, 1986). Dropping out of school is not only an educational problem but a significant social problem as well. Indeed, it has obvious psychological, economical, and social ramifications. For instance, dropouts may undergo a loss of selfesteem, turn to drugs, and become a financial burden to society (Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Tidwell, 1988). A survey of research on high school dropout reveals that one factor in a student's decision to drop out of school may be motivation (see Bean, 1985; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988; Tinto, 1975). The purpose of this study was to propose and test Robert J. V...

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...l dropout behavior. This model was tested with high school students (N = 4,537) by means of a prospective design. Results from analyses of variance and a structural equation modeling analysis (with L1SREL) were found to support the model for all participants and for each gender separately. High school dropout represents an important problem that affects thousands of students each year. Roughly one third of all students will drop out of high school without having received their high school diplomas, both in Canada (Canada Manpower and Immigration, 1990) and in the United States (Hammack, 1986; Mann, 1986). Dropping out of school is not only an educational problem but a significant social problem as well. Indeed, it has obvious psychological, economical, and social ramifications. For instance, dropouts may undergo a loss of selfesteem, turn to drugs, and become a financial burden to society (Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Tidwell, 1988). A survey of research on high school dropout reveals that one factor in a student's decision to drop out of school may be motivation (see Bean, 1985; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988; Tinto, 1975). The purpose of this study was to propose and test Robert J. Vallerand and ...

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...to undermine students* perceptions of competence and autonomy. Second, these low perceptions of competence and autonomy, in turn, diminish students' self-determined motivation. Third, low levels of self-determined motivation lead students to develop intentions to drop out of school. Finally, these intentions are later acted on, when it is possible to do so. The conceptual and empirical evidence supporting the model is presented below. Motivation Toward School One motivational approach that has been found useful in education posits that behavior can be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated (Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1989; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Lepper & Hodell, 1989). Intrinsic motivation is generally defined as the fact of engaging in an activity for the 1161 1162 VALLERAND, FORTIER, AND GUAY Figure 1. The motivational model of high school dropout. pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation itself (Deci, 1975). For instance, a student who reads a history book because she finds it interesting displays intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is experienced when someone engages in an activity as a means to an end. Three major types of extrinsic motivation have been proposed (De...

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... to lead to positive outcomes more readily than non-self-determined forms of motivation (amotivation and external regulation), which have been found to induce negative outcomes. These findings have been obtained with several educational outcomes, such as effort, positive emotions experienced in class, psychological adjustment at school, quality of conceptual learning, concentration, satisfaction with one's academic life, school performance, and intentions of continuing one's schooling (e.g., Fortier, Vallerand, & Guay, 1995; Gottfried, 1985, 1990; Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Grolnick et al., 1991; Harter & Connell, 1984; Lloyd & Barenblatt, 1984; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand et al., 1989; Vallerand et al,, 1993). In addition, much experimental (laboratory) research reveals that individuals who are induced to become externally regulated persist much less than those who are intrinsically motivated (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, for a review). This is especially likely to be the case when subsequent engagement in the activity is not compulsory. We feel that the parallel with high school dropout is striking. Although certain students do drop out of high school when they are only 14 or ...

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...mportant problem that affects thousands of students each year. Roughly one third of all students will drop out of high school without having received their high school diplomas, both in Canada (Canada Manpower and Immigration, 1990) and in the United States (Hammack, 1986; Mann, 1986). Dropping out of school is not only an educational problem but a significant social problem as well. Indeed, it has obvious psychological, economical, and social ramifications. For instance, dropouts may undergo a loss of selfesteem, turn to drugs, and become a financial burden to society (Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Tidwell, 1988). A survey of research on high school dropout reveals that one factor in a student's decision to drop out of school may be motivation (see Bean, 1985; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988; Tinto, 1975). The purpose of this study was to propose and test Robert J. Vallerand and Frederic Guay, Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Comportement Social, Departement de Psychologie, Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Montreal, Qu6bec, Canada; Michelle S. Fortier, School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Preparation of this article was facilitated through a grant and a doctoral fello...

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...ick & Ryan, 1987; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992). Two manifest indicators were used to create the behavioral intentions latent variable (see Questionnaire section). Actual dropout behavior was assessed through a dichotomous variable that reflected enrollment status the following fall semester (0 = re-enrolled; 1 = dropped out). The variance-covariance matrix of the 22 observed variables was used as the database for the analysis. The variance-covariance matrix of the observed variables (which also include the means) is shown in the Appendix. The model was statistically tested using L1SREL VII (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1989). Using maximum likelihood estimation, LISREL generates standardized estimates of all parameters not constrained to specific values (generally, 1 or 0) . Goodness of fit of the estimated model is assessed by means of comparing the reproduced covariance matrix, which is based on the specified constraints, with the observed covariance matrix. Indexes of fit provided by LISREL and reported in this section are the chisquare statistic, the goodness-of-rit index (GFI), and the adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI). Because the chi-square statistic is a poor fit estimate when the sample is as large a...

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...ence this general school climate and thus have an impact on students' sense of autonomy and competence, as well as on their school motivation. It is important to emphasize that the motivational model posits that social agents do not influence students' motivation directly. Rather, in line with self-determination theory, social agents' effects are hypothesized to be mediated by students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. Some evidence for this proposiMOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT 1163 tion exists. For instance, research has shown that the impact of feedback from a supervisor (Harackiewicz & Larson, 1986) or the experimenter (Vallerand & Reid, 1984, 1988) on intrinsic motivation is mediated by individuals' perceptions of competence. Recent research by Reeve and Deci (1996) has also shown that the impact of the social context on intrinsic motivation is mediated by perceptions of both competence and autonomy. Dropping Out of High School as a Motivational Consequence Considerable research reveals that motivation can lead to important outcomes. Although most studies have focused on the effects of intrinsic motivation (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, for review), more recent research based on the tene...

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... research is needed to better understand the relative impact of perceived competence and autonomy on motivation. A third and final point with respect to the social context refers to the strategy used to assess the influence of social agents on motivation. Much of the relevant intrinsic-extrinsic motivation research in education has focused on the impact of either teachers (e.g., Deci et al., 1981; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) or parents (Gottfried et ah, 1994; Grolnick et al., 1991) on students' motivation. However, very little research has focused on multiple sources of impact (for exceptions, see Boggiano et al., 1992; Eccles, 1993; Ryan & Stiller, 1991). Results from this study revealed that such a perspective is fruitful and ecologically valid, because all three social agents were found to influence students' motivation through their impact on their perceptions of competence, autonomy, or both. Future research from such a multivariate perspective is encouraged, as it could lead to a more complete understanding of the processes involved in human motivation. In this vein, the role of friends and fellow students deserves scientific scrutiny in light of research that has revealed that children who entertain ...

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... at the beginning of the term that they were less intrinsically motivated and less identified but more amotivated than persistent students. It thus appears that these three constructs represent central motivational variables in the understanding and prediction of high school dropout. These findings are also in line with research on high school dropout that has shown dropout students to display more alienation (a construct akin to that of amotivation) but fewer positive attitudes and less liking (constructs related to intrinsic motivation) toward school than persistent students (e.g., Aslone & McLanahan, 1991;BeardenetaL, 1989; Horowitz, 1992). However, the present findings go beyond the mere fact that dropout students find school boring and meaningless; these findings underscore the fact that dropout students are not motivated extrinsically in a meaningful and choiceful manner, or identified, as persistent students are. Many students' behaviors are not intrinsically motivated but rather are performed in an extrinsic fashion (Ryan, Connell, & Grolnick, 1992). The question is what type of extrinsic motivation will underlie their behavior. When extrinsic motivation is self-determined (i.e., identifi...

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...ardized estimates of all parameters not constrained to specific values (generally, 1 or 0) . Goodness of fit of the estimated model is assessed by means of comparing the reproduced covariance matrix, which is based on the specified constraints, with the observed covariance matrix. Indexes of fit provided by LISREL and reported in this section are the chisquare statistic, the goodness-of-rit index (GFI), and the adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI). Because the chi-square statistic is a poor fit estimate when the sample is as large as in this study, we also used the critical-N (CN) statistic (Hoelter, 1983). This statistic consists of the value that would be required for accepting the fit of a given model for a chi-square test. Hoelter suggested that a model with a CN value exceeding 200 is an adequate representation of the sample data. Results showed Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations for the Motivational Antecedent and Mediating Variable Subscales for Dropout and Persistent Students Subscale Perceived school competence Perceived school autonomy Perceived parental autonomy support Perceived teacher autonomy support Perceived school administration autonomy support 3.56 1.35 4.05 1.40 <0.0001 ...

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...dropout students, relative to persistent students, report that they participate much less in the decision-making process at school, that they are told to improve more often, and that they are disciplined much more (Dohn, 1992). Dropout students also report that they have a less positive teacher-student relationship than persistent students and that their teachers are controlling toward them (Bearden, Spencer, & Moracco, 1989; Dohn, 1992). They also report that their parents are more controlling and punitive both behaviorally and affectively toward them than are parents of persistent students (Bachman, Green, & Wirtanen, 1971; Rumberger, Ghatak, Poulos, & Ritter, 1990). Second, as pertains to students' perceptions of competence and autonomy, several studies have demonstrated that dropout students have lower perceptions of school competence (e.g., Horowitz, 1992) and autonomy (Dohn, 1992) than persistent students. Finally, with respect to motivation, dropout students display lower levels of interest and attitudes but higher levels of alienation and boredom toward school than persistent students (e.g., Bearden et al., 1989; Calabrese & Poe, 1990; Horowitz, 1992; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988). In addition, Dohn (19...

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...hip applies to the dropout situation as well. Not only is the motivational model theoretically sound, it is also in line with the high school dropout literature. First, with respect to the social context, dropout students, relative to persistent students, report that they participate much less in the decision-making process at school, that they are told to improve more often, and that they are disciplined much more (Dohn, 1992). Dropout students also report that they have a less positive teacher-student relationship than persistent students and that their teachers are controlling toward them (Bearden, Spencer, & Moracco, 1989; Dohn, 1992). They also report that their parents are more controlling and punitive both behaviorally and affectively toward them than are parents of persistent students (Bachman, Green, & Wirtanen, 1971; Rumberger, Ghatak, Poulos, & Ritter, 1990). Second, as pertains to students' perceptions of competence and autonomy, several studies have demonstrated that dropout students have lower perceptions of school competence (e.g., Horowitz, 1992) and autonomy (Dohn, 1992) than persistent students. Finally, with respect to motivation, dropout students display lower levels of interest and attitudes b...

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... to some extent for these gender differences. Results from this study revealed that boys perceived their teachers as being less supportive of autonomy than girls did. Past research has also revealed that teachers do not act in the same way toward boys and girls in the classroom: Boys receive much more criticism from teachers (e.g., Brophy & Good, 1974) and are less highly regarded than girls on a host of variables, such as motivation, conduct, and skills (see Dweck & Goetz, 1978). Teachers tend to be more controlling and punitive with boys, presumably to control their inappropriate behaviors (Boggiano & Katz, 1991; Brophy & Good, 1974). However, the unintended effect might be that boys' motivation is negatively affected by such practices, which eventually lead to the development of a non-self-determined motivational profile that in turn triggers undesirable consequences, including dropping out of high school. Although past research has not focused on the autonomy-supportive behavior of the school administration, the present results revealed that administrators may act in a fashion similar to teachers. Future research on the role of social agents in the development of different motivational profiles for...

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...ctively toward them than are parents of persistent students (Bachman, Green, & Wirtanen, 1971; Rumberger, Ghatak, Poulos, & Ritter, 1990). Second, as pertains to students' perceptions of competence and autonomy, several studies have demonstrated that dropout students have lower perceptions of school competence (e.g., Horowitz, 1992) and autonomy (Dohn, 1992) than persistent students. Finally, with respect to motivation, dropout students display lower levels of interest and attitudes but higher levels of alienation and boredom toward school than persistent students (e.g., Bearden et al., 1989; Calabrese & Poe, 1990; Horowitz, 1992; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988). In addition, Dohn (1992) reported that when they applied for high school, eventual dropout students, relative to persistent students, indicated pursuing their schooling much more because of parental pressure and much less because of their own wishes or goal directedness. These results tend to support the hypothesis that dropout students may have internalized a non-self-determined motivational orientation. Although several studies from both the motivation and dropout literatures support the different parts of the motivational model, only one, t...

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...89, 1993). Thus, especially because school tends not to be interesting, students need to find purpose and choice (i.e., identified regulation) in attending school. Most students generally manage to achieve this end and become motivated out of identified regulation (see the means for identified regulation in Table 1). Students who do not, however, are at risk of dropping out. A second implication is that the social context plays a fundamental role in the dropout process. Much theorizing and research has focused almost exclusively on the personal determinants of dropping out of high school {see Wagenaar, 1987). Although personal determinants are important, we believe that such an approach represents an oversimplified picture of the process. A more integrated perspective wherein the person interacts with the social context is needed in order to explain changes in motivation that may lead to the decision to quit school. The present findings support this perspective in showing that teachers, parents, and the school administration behave in a more controlling way toward future dropout students than toward persistent students. These findings are consistent with research that reveals the use of harsh and...

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...support on students' motivation through their impact on students' sense of competence and autonomy. Gender Differences in Motivation and Behavior The present findings also revealed that girls displayed a more self-determined motivational profile than boys. This is in line with research that has explored gender differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in various life contexts. Such research generally reveals that women display a more self-determined motivational profile than men in a diversity of life activities, such as sports, leisure, interpersonal relationships, and education (see Vallerand, 1993, for a review). Because self-determined motivation is associated with positive outcomes, one would expect women to generally display more positive outcomes than men because their motivation is more self-determined than mens'. Very little research has addressed gender differences in outcomes as a function of motivation. However, the education literature appears to support the above hypothesis. A good example of this is the dropout phenomenon. The literature clearly reveals that girls are much less likely to drop out of high school than boys (see Royer et al., 1993). In the Province of Quebec, ...

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...will remain in school. Research in the attitude literature reveals that intentions represent a key predictor of behavior (see Ajzen& Fishbein, 1980). We believe that this relationship applies to the dropout situation as well. Not only is the motivational model theoretically sound, it is also in line with the high school dropout literature. First, with respect to the social context, dropout students, relative to persistent students, report that they participate much less in the decision-making process at school, that they are told to improve more often, and that they are disciplined much more (Dohn, 1992). Dropout students also report that they have a less positive teacher-student relationship than persistent students and that their teachers are controlling toward them (Bearden, Spencer, & Moracco, 1989; Dohn, 1992). They also report that their parents are more controlling and punitive both behaviorally and affectively toward them than are parents of persistent students (Bachman, Green, & Wirtanen, 1971; Rumberger, Ghatak, Poulos, & Ritter, 1990). Second, as pertains to students' perceptions of competence and autonomy, several studies have demonstrated that dropout students have lower percepti...

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...isions concerning my school activities"), the Teacher Autonomy Support Scale (e.g., "I feel that my teachers pressure me to do what they want"; this scale used reverse scoring), and finally, the School Administration Autonomy Support Scale (e.g., "The school administration generally consults students before introducing new school policies'') had Cronbach alphas of .54, .56, and .65, respectively.2 Participants rated items on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from not at all in agreement ( I ) to completely in agreement (7). These scales were adapted from the Perceived Interpersonal Style Scale (Pelletier, 1992), which has been found to be a reliable and valid measure of perceived interpersonal style. For instance, in the sports context, the Autonomy Support scale yielded a Cronbach alpha of .76, whereas the construct validity was supported through correlations that showed autonomy support from the coach's part to be positively related to athletes' intrinsic motivation and identified regulation but negatively related to their amotivation (Pelletier et al., 1995). In the second part of the questionnaire, participants completed two scales that assessed educational motivational mediators (Deci & Ryan, 1...

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...d had a Cronbach alpha of .61. Adapted from the Perceived Competence in Life Domains Scale (Losier, Vallerand, & Blais, 1993), it assesses perceptions of competence toward various life domains, including education, and has been found to be highly reliable and valid. The second instrument, the Perceived School Autonomy Scale, measured students' feelings of freedom in the school environment. It also consisted of three items (e.g., "I feel controlled at school"; this scale used reverse scoring) and had an alpha of .54. This scale was adapted from the Perceived Autonomy Toward Life Domains Scale (Blais, Vallerand, & Lachance, 1990) and assesses one's perceptions of autonomy in different life domains, including education. The Education subscale has been found to possess adequate internal consistency (a — .71) and lo relate positively to intrinsic motivation and identified regulation but negatively to amotivation (Blais et al., 1990). It thus appears to be a reliable and valid measure of perceived autonomy. Responses to these two scales were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from not at all in agreement (1) to completely in agreement (7). The third part of the questionnaire was the French version of the Academic Mo...

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...to drop out of high school, which are later implemented, leading to actual dropout behavior. This model was tested with high school students (N = 4,537) by means of a prospective design. Results from analyses of variance and a structural equation modeling analysis (with L1SREL) were found to support the model for all participants and for each gender separately. High school dropout represents an important problem that affects thousands of students each year. Roughly one third of all students will drop out of high school without having received their high school diplomas, both in Canada (Canada Manpower and Immigration, 1990) and in the United States (Hammack, 1986; Mann, 1986). Dropping out of school is not only an educational problem but a significant social problem as well. Indeed, it has obvious psychological, economical, and social ramifications. For instance, dropouts may undergo a loss of selfesteem, turn to drugs, and become a financial burden to society (Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Tidwell, 1988). A survey of research on high school dropout reveals that one factor in a student's decision to drop out of school may be motivation (see Bean, 1985; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988; Tinto, 1975). The purpose of this s...

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...hat they have a less positive teacher-student relationship than persistent students and that their teachers are controlling toward them (Bearden, Spencer, & Moracco, 1989; Dohn, 1992). They also report that their parents are more controlling and punitive both behaviorally and affectively toward them than are parents of persistent students (Bachman, Green, & Wirtanen, 1971; Rumberger, Ghatak, Poulos, & Ritter, 1990). Second, as pertains to students' perceptions of competence and autonomy, several studies have demonstrated that dropout students have lower perceptions of school competence (e.g., Horowitz, 1992) and autonomy (Dohn, 1992) than persistent students. Finally, with respect to motivation, dropout students display lower levels of interest and attitudes but higher levels of alienation and boredom toward school than persistent students (e.g., Bearden et al., 1989; Calabrese & Poe, 1990; Horowitz, 1992; Rumberger, 1987; Tidwell, 1988). In addition, Dohn (1992) reported that when they applied for high school, eventual dropout students, relative to persistent students, indicated pursuing their schooling much more because of parental pressure and much less because of their own wishes or goal dire...

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...on seem to engender, research on the determinants of these motivation differences is definitely called for. We feel that the motivational model includes important determinants of these gender differences. For instance, the social context at school may be responsible to some extent for these gender differences. Results from this study revealed that boys perceived their teachers as being less supportive of autonomy than girls did. Past research has also revealed that teachers do not act in the same way toward boys and girls in the classroom: Boys receive much more criticism from teachers (e.g., Brophy & Good, 1974) and are less highly regarded than girls on a host of variables, such as motivation, conduct, and skills (see Dweck & Goetz, 1978). Teachers tend to be more controlling and punitive with boys, presumably to control their inappropriate behaviors (Boggiano & Katz, 1991; Brophy & Good, 1974). However, the unintended effect might be that boys' motivation is negatively affected by such practices, which eventually lead to the development of a non-self-determined motivational profile that in turn triggers undesirable consequences, including dropping out of high school. Although past research has not ...

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...when it is possible to do so. The conceptual and empirical evidence supporting the model is presented below. Motivation Toward School One motivational approach that has been found useful in education posits that behavior can be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated (Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1989; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Lepper & Hodell, 1989). Intrinsic motivation is generally defined as the fact of engaging in an activity for the 1161 1162 VALLERAND, FORTIER, AND GUAY Figure 1. The motivational model of high school dropout. pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation itself (Deci, 1975). For instance, a student who reads a history book because she finds it interesting displays intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is experienced when someone engages in an activity as a means to an end. Three major types of extrinsic motivation have been proposed (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Ryan, Connell, & Deci, 1985), namely external regulation, introjected regulation, and identified regulation. Individuals are externally regulated when the source of control is outside the person. For instance, students who go to school because their parents force them to do so are ext...

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... identified regulation but negatively related to their amotivation (Pelletier et al., 1995). In the second part of the questionnaire, participants completed two scales that assessed educational motivational mediators (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991), namely, perceived school competence and perceived autonomy at school. The Perceived School Competence Scale measured students" perceptions of competence in the academic domain. This scale consisted of three items (e.g., "I consider myself to be a good student") and had a Cronbach alpha of .61. Adapted from the Perceived Competence in Life Domains Scale (Losier, Vallerand, & Blais, 1993), it assesses perceptions of competence toward various life domains, including education, and has been found to be highly reliable and valid. The second instrument, the Perceived School Autonomy Scale, measured students' feelings of freedom in the school environment. It also consisted of three items (e.g., "I feel controlled at school"; this scale used reverse scoring) and had an alpha of .54. This scale was adapted from the Perceived Autonomy Toward Life Domains Scale (Blais, Vallerand, & Lachance, 1990) and assesses one's perceptions of autonomy in different life domains, including educatio...

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... to determine which of the students were true dropouts, that is, those who had hot simply moved to another province or died. Through these procedures, we identified a total of 282 dropout cases. The number of dropout students recorded amounts to a 6% dropout rate. There were 161 boys and 121 girls in the dropout sample, leaving 4,255 participants (2,119 boys and 2,124 girls, and 12 of unspecified gender) in the "persistent" group. Thus, 57% of all dropouts were boys, whereas only 43% were girls. This difference is significant, x2('. N = 4,525) = 5.41, p < .02, and in line with recent reports (Royer, Moisan, Saint-Laurent, & Giasson, 1993). Results Motivation Toward School and Behavioral Intentions A 2 (type of student: dropout vs. persistent) X 2 (gender) x 7 (type of school motivation) analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures on the motivation variable was performed on the data.3 This approach involved taking the scores on the seven motivation subscales and incorporating them into the Type of Student X Gender design as a repeated measure (BMDP; Dixon, Brown, Engelman, & Jennric, 1990; Program 4V). This design allows one to test for the presence of a Type of Student X Motivation interaction, in which dropout studen...