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Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2003
"... behavior relations Greenwald et al. Predictive validity of the IAT (Draft of 30 Dec 2008) 2 Abstract (131 words) This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects), found average r=.274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implic ..."
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Cited by 592 (92 self)
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behavior relations Greenwald et al. Predictive validity of the IAT (Draft of 30 Dec 2008) 2 Abstract (131 words) This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects), found average r=.274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures. Parallel explicit (i.e., self-report) measures, available in 156 of these samples (13,068 subjects), also predicted effectively (average r=.361), but with much greater variability of effect size. Predictive validity of self-report was impaired for socially sensitive topics, for which impression management may distort self-report responses. For 32 samples with criterion measures involving Black–White interracial behavior, predictive validity of IAT measures significantly exceeded that of self-report measures. Both IAT and self-report measures displayed incremental validity, with each measure predicting criterion variance beyond that predicted by the other. The more highly IAT and self-report measures were intercorrelated, the greater was the predictive validity of each.
The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being
- Journal of Personality & Social Psychology
, 2003
"... Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale ..."
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Cited by 425 (20 self)
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Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) are described. Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies then show that the MAAS measures a unique quality of consciousness that is related to a variety of well-being constructs, that differentiates mindfulness practitioners from others, and that is associated with enhanced selfawareness. An experience-sampling study shows that both dispositional and state mindfulness predict self-regulated behavior and positive emotional states. Finally, a clinical intervention study with cancer patients demonstrates that increases in mindfulness over time relate to declines in mood disturbance and stress. Many philosophical, spiritual, and psychological traditions emphasize the importance of the quality of consciousness for the maintenance and enhancement of well-being (Wilber, 2000). Despite this, it is easy to overlook the importance of consciousness in human well-being because almost everyone exercises its primary
Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being
, 2003
"... Five studies tested two general hypotheses: Individuals differ in their use of emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression, and these individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social relationships. Study 1 presents new measures of the habitual use of ..."
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Cited by 383 (40 self)
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Five studies tested two general hypotheses: Individuals differ in their use of emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression, and these individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social relationships. Study 1 presents new measures of the habitual use of reappraisal and suppression. Study 2 examines convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 shows that reappraisers experience and express greater positive emotion and lesser negative emotion, whereas suppressors experience and express lesser positive emotion, yet experience greater negative emotion. Study 4 indicates that using reappraisal is associated with better interpersonal functioning, whereas using suppression is associated with worse interpersonal functioning. Study 5 shows that using reappraisal is related positively to well-being, whereas using suppression is related negatively. Emotions have long been viewed as passions that come and go, more or less of their own accord (Solomon, 1976). However, there is a growing appreciation that individuals exert considerable con-trol over their emotions, using a wide range of strategies to influence which emotions they have and when they have them (Gross, 1998). Do individuals differ systematically in their use of particular emotion regulation strategies? If so, do these individual differences have important implications for adaptation? In this article, we describe five studies that examine individual differences in the use of two common emotion regulation strate-gies—cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. In Study 1, we present brief scales to measure individual differences in the chronic use of these two strategies, and address psychomet-ric issues as well as gender and ethnicity effects. In Study 2, we link our new emotion regulation constructs to conceptually related individual differences and address potential confounds. Studies 3–5 examine the consequences of these emotion regulation strat-egies in three important domains of adaptation: experience and expression of emotion, interpersonal functioning, and personal well-being.
High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success
- Journal of Personality
, 2004
"... ABSTRACT What good is self-control? We incorporated a new measure of individual differences in self-control into two large investigations of a broad spectrum of behaviors. The new scale showed good internal consistency and retest reliability. Higher scores on self-control correlated with a higher gr ..."
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Cited by 236 (18 self)
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ABSTRACT What good is self-control? We incorporated a new measure of individual differences in self-control into two large investigations of a broad spectrum of behaviors. The new scale showed good internal consistency and retest reliability. Higher scores on self-control correlated with a higher grade point average, better adjustment (fewer reports of psychopathology, higher self-esteem), less binge eating and alcohol abuse, better relationships and interpersonal skills, secure attachment, and more optimal emotional responses. Tests for curvilinearity failed to indicate any drawbacks of so-called overcontrol, and the positive effects remained after controlling for social desirability. Low self-control is thus a significant risk factor for a broad range of personal and interpersonal problems.
Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 1991
"... This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) co ..."
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Cited by 224 (16 self)
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This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem. There has been a resurgence of interest in examining whether aspects of the self-concept are stable or malleable (Markus & Kunda, 1986). On the one hand, there is considerable evidence that the self-concept is persistent and stable and that people will actively seek information that confirms their self-concept and reject information that threatens their general view of self
A consumer values orientation for materialism and its measurement: Scale development and validation
- The Journal of Consumer Research
, 1992
"... This article reviews the construct and measurement of materialism and concludes that materialism is appropriately conceptualized as a consumer value. The devel-opment of a values-oriented materialism scale with three components-acquisition centrality, acquisition as the pursuit of happiness, and pos ..."
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Cited by 189 (0 self)
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This article reviews the construct and measurement of materialism and concludes that materialism is appropriately conceptualized as a consumer value. The devel-opment of a values-oriented materialism scale with three components-acquisition centrality, acquisition as the pursuit of happiness, and possession-defined success-is described. In validation tests high scorers (compared with low scorers) desired a higher level of income, placed greater emphasis on financial security and less on interpersonal relationships, preferred to spend more on themselves and less on others, engaged in fewer voluntary simplicity behaviors, and were less satisfied with their lives. A merica is a consumer society, and many treatises have described the dominance of consumption motives among Americans (see, e.g., Bredemeier and Toby 1960; de Tocqueville [1835] 1954; Wachtel 1983). In such discussions of consumption and materialism, authors tend to speak of consumers as an undifferen-tiated group, acting individually, perhaps, but guided equally by the same consuming desire for goods. Hence, Cushman (1990, p. 600) describes the post-World War II consumer as "yearn[ing] to acquire and consume," Fox and Lears (1983, p. xii) see Americans as engaged in "a ceaseless pursuit of the 'good life ' " through con-sumption, and Fromm (1967, p. 179) notes that "con-temporary man has an unlimited hunger for more and more goods." While consumer goods do play an important role in American culture, these analyses obscure differences among individuals. For some, possessions are essential to their lives and identities. For example, Lisa Labnon, a 30-year-old New Hampshire woman, became home-less when she lost her job and her condominium was repossessed. She refused to sell her Mercedes and mink coat, however, because the loss in image and self-esteem 'Marsha L. Richins is associate professor of marketing, University
Development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion
- Self and Identity
"... This article defines the construct of self-compassion and describes the development of the Self-Compassion Scale. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one’s experiences as part of the l ..."
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Cited by 181 (16 self)
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This article defines the construct of self-compassion and describes the development of the Self-Compassion Scale. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one’s experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as isolating; and holding painful thoughts and feelings in mindful awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Evidence for the validity and reliability of the scale is presented in a series of studies. Results indicate that selfcompassion is significantly correlated with positive mental health outcomes such as less depression and anxiety and greater life satisfaction. Evidence is also provided for the discriminant validity of the scale, including with regard to self-esteem measures. Recent years have seen an increasing dialogue between Eastern philosophical
Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: approach and avoidance Frontiers
- in Psychology | Personality Science and Individual Differences December 2010 | Volume 1 | Article 239 | 6
, 2002
"... The present research examined the role of approach and avoidance motivation in models of personality. Specifically, it examined the hypothesis that approach and avoidance temperaments represent the foundation of several basic dimensions espoused in the trait adjective, affective disposition, and mot ..."
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Cited by 171 (14 self)
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The present research examined the role of approach and avoidance motivation in models of personality. Specifically, it examined the hypothesis that approach and avoidance temperaments represent the foundation of several basic dimensions espoused in the trait adjective, affective disposition, and motivational system approaches to personality. Factor analytic support for the hypothesis was obtained in Studies 1, 2, and 6; measures of extraversion, positive emotionality, and behavioral activation system loaded together on 1 factor (Approach Temperament) and measures of neuroticism, negative emotionality, and behavioral inhibition system loaded on another factor (Avoidance Temperament). This 2-factor structure was shown to be independent of response biases. In Studies 3–7, approach and avoidance temperaments were shown to be systematically linked to achievement goals (both nomothetic and idiographic). The findings are discussed in terms of an integrative approach to personality. The distinction between approach and avoidance motivation has been discussed by scholars for millennia, beginning with the ethical hedonism espoused by the ancient Greek philosophers Democritus (460–370 B.C.) and Aristippus (430–360 B.C.). Approach and avoidance motivation differ as a function of valence: In
Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one’s cool
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2000
"... An emerging literature has begun to document the affective consequences of emotion regulation. Little is known, however, about whether motion regulation also has cognitive consequences. A process model of emotion suggests hat expressive suppression should reduce memory for emotional events but that ..."
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Cited by 159 (27 self)
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An emerging literature has begun to document the affective consequences of emotion regulation. Little is known, however, about whether motion regulation also has cognitive consequences. A process model of emotion suggests hat expressive suppression should reduce memory for emotional events but that reappraisal should not. Three studies tested this hypothesis. Study 1 experimentally manipulated expressive suppression during film viewing, showing that suppression led to poorer memory f r the details of the film. Study 2 manipulated expressive suppression a d reappraisal during slide viewing. Only suppression ledto poorer slide memory. Study 3 examined individual differences in typi al expressive suppression a d reappraisal and found that suppression was associated with poorer self-reported and objective memory but tha reappraisal was not. Together, these studies suggest that he cognitive costs of keeping one's cool may vary according tohow this is done. Western culture is decidedly ambivalent about emotions. On the one hand, ' emotions are seen as wanton marauders that supplant good judgment with primitive, immature, and destructive thoughts and impulses (Young, 1943). On the other hand, emotions are seen as indispensable guardians of our well-being that direct our re-
Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 1991
"... This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-orien ..."
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Cited by 151 (33 self)
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This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment. Historically, the concept of perfectionism has been a topic of widespread interest (e.g., Adler, 1956; Hollender, 1965; Homey, 1950; Missildine, 1963; Pacht, 1984). Related constructs, such as level of aspiration, need achievement, and Type A behavior, have been the focus of extensive research; however, there have been few systematic attempts to examine the perfectionistic personality style. Indeed, only a few investigators have operationalized perfectionism (Burns, 1980; Jones, 1968) or suggested how it might develop as a personality style (Hamachek,
