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188
Dozer: ultra-low power data gathering in sensor networks
- In IPSN ’07
, 2007
"... Environmental monitoring is one of the driving applications in the domain of sensor networks. The lifetime of such systems is envisioned to exceed several years. To achieve this longevity in unattended operation it is crucial to minimize energy consumption of the battery-powered sensor nodes. This p ..."
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Cited by 117 (5 self)
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Environmental monitoring is one of the driving applications in the domain of sensor networks. The lifetime of such systems is envisioned to exceed several years. To achieve this longevity in unattended operation it is crucial to minimize energy consumption of the battery-powered sensor nodes. This paper proposes Dozer, a data gathering protocol meeting the requirements of periodic data collection and ultra-low power consumption. The protocol comprises MAC-layer, topology control, and routing all coordinated to reduce energy wastage of the communication subsystem. Using a tree-based network structure, packets are reliably routed towards the data sink. Parents thereby schedule precise rendezvous times for all communication with their children. In a deployed network consisting of 40 TinyOSenabled sensor nodes, Dozer achieves radio duty cycles in the magnitude of 0.2%.
RI-MAC: a receiver-initiated asynchronous duty cycle MAC protocol for dynamic traffic loads in wireless sensor networks
- in Proc. ACM SenSys
, 2008
"... The problem of idle listening is one of the most significant sources of energy consumption in wireless sensor nodes, and many techniques have been proposed based on duty cycling to reduce this cost. In this paper, we present a new asynchronous duty cycle MAC protocol, called Receiver-Initiated MAC ( ..."
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Cited by 101 (0 self)
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The problem of idle listening is one of the most significant sources of energy consumption in wireless sensor nodes, and many techniques have been proposed based on duty cycling to reduce this cost. In this paper, we present a new asynchronous duty cycle MAC protocol, called Receiver-Initiated MAC (RI-MAC), that uses receiver-initiated data transmission in order to efficiently and effectively operate over a wide range of traffic loads. RI-MAC attempts to minimize the time a sender and its intended receiver occupy the wireless medium to find a rendezvous time for exchanging data, while still decoupling the sender and receiver’s duty cycle schedules. We show the performance of RI-MAC through detailed ns-2 simulation and through measurements of an implementation in TinyOS in a testbed of MICAz motes. Compared to the prior asynchronous duty cycling approach of X-MAC, RI-MAC achieves higher throughput, packet delivery ratio, and power efficiency under a wide range of traffic loads. Especially when there are contending flows, such as bursty traffic or transmissions from hidden nodes, RI-MAC significantly improves throughput and packet delivery ratio. Even under light traffic load for which X-MAC is optimized, RI-MAC achieves the same high performance in terms of packet delivery ratio and latency while maintaining comparable power efficiency.
IP is Dead, Long Live IP for Wireless Sensor Networks
- THE 6TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON EMBEDDED NETWORKED SENSOR SYSTEMS (SENSYS'08)
, 2008
"... A decade ago as wireless sensor network research took off many researchers in the field denounced the use of IP as inadequate and in contradiction to the needs of wireless sensor networking. Since then the field has matured, standard links have emerged, and IP has evolved. In this paper, we present ..."
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Cited by 97 (5 self)
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A decade ago as wireless sensor network research took off many researchers in the field denounced the use of IP as inadequate and in contradiction to the needs of wireless sensor networking. Since then the field has matured, standard links have emerged, and IP has evolved. In this paper, we present the design of a complete IPv6-based network architecture for wireless sensor networks. We validate the architecture with a production-quality implementation that incorporates many techniques pioneered in the sensor network community, including duty-cycled link protocols, header compression, hop-by-hop forwarding, and efficient routing with effective link estimation. In addition to providing interoperability with existing IP devices, this implementation was able to achieve an average duty-cycle of 0.65%, average per-hop latency of 62ms, and a data reception rate of 99.98 % over a period of 4 weeks in a real-world home-monitoring application where each node generates one application packet per minute. Our results outperform existing systems that do not adhere to any particular standard or architecture. In light of this demonstration of full IPv6 capability, we review the central arguments that led the field away from IP. We believe that the presence of an architecture, specifically an IPv6-based one, provides a strong foundation for wireless sensor networks going forward.
Design and Evaluation of a Versatile and Efficient Receiver-Initiated Link Layer for Low-Power Wireless
"... We present A-MAC, a receiver-initiated link layer for low-power wireless networks that supports several services under a unified architecture, and does so more efficiently and scalably than prior approaches. A-MAC’s versatility stems from layering unicast, broadcast, wakeup, pollcast, and discovery ..."
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Cited by 65 (5 self)
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We present A-MAC, a receiver-initiated link layer for low-power wireless networks that supports several services under a unified architecture, and does so more efficiently and scalably than prior approaches. A-MAC’s versatility stems from layering unicast, broadcast, wakeup, pollcast, and discovery above a single, flexible synchronization primitive. A-MAC’s efficiency stems from optimizing this primitive and with it the most consequential decision that a low-power link makes: whether to stay awake or go to sleep after probing the channel. Today’s receiver-initiated protocols require more time and energy to make this decision, and they exhibit worse judgment as well, leading to many false positives and negatives, and lower packet delivery ratios. A-MAC begins to make this decision quickly, and decides more conclusively and correctly in both the negative and affirmative. A-MAC’s scalability comes from reserving one channel for the initial handshake and different channels for data transfer. Our results show that: (i) a unified implementation is possible; (ii) A-MAC’s idle listening power increases by just 1.12 × under interference, compared to 17.3 × for LPL and 54.7 × for RI-MAC; (iii) A-MAC offers high single-hop delivery ratios, even with multiple contending senders; (iv) network wakeup is faster and far more channel efficient than LPL; and (v) collection routing performance exceeds the state-of-the-art.
MAC Essentials for Wireless Sensor Networks
, 2009
"... The wireless medium being inherently broadcast in nature and hence prone to interferences requires highly optimized medium access control (MAC) protocols. This holds particularly true for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consisting of a large amount of miniaturized battery-powered wireless networked ..."
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Cited by 57 (1 self)
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The wireless medium being inherently broadcast in nature and hence prone to interferences requires highly optimized medium access control (MAC) protocols. This holds particularly true for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consisting of a large amount of miniaturized battery-powered wireless networked sensors required to operate for years with no human intervention. There has hence been a growing interest on understanding and optimizing WSN MAC protocols in recent years, where the limited and constrained resources have driven research towards primarily reducing energy consumption of MAC functionalities. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive state-of-the-art study in which we thoroughly expose the prime focus of WSN MAC protocols, design guidelines that inspired these protocols, as well as drawbacks and shortcomings of the existing solutions and how existing and emerging technology will influence future
BoX-MACs: Exploiting Physical and Link Layer Boundaries in LowPower Networking
, 2008
"... We present two MAC layers for ultra-low-power wireless networking, BoX-MAC-1 and BoX-MAC-2. Leading lowpower MACs today reside in a single layer: BMAC exploits only the physical-layer while XMAC utilizes only the link-layer. In contrast, BoX-MAC-1 and BoX-MAC-2 are cross-layer protocols. BoX-MAC-1 i ..."
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Cited by 57 (2 self)
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We present two MAC layers for ultra-low-power wireless networking, BoX-MAC-1 and BoX-MAC-2. Leading lowpower MACs today reside in a single layer: BMAC exploits only the physical-layer while XMAC utilizes only the link-layer. In contrast, BoX-MAC-1 and BoX-MAC-2 are cross-layer protocols. BoX-MAC-1 incorporates link-layer information into a predominantly physical-layer sampling approach. BoX-MAC-2 combines physical-layer information into a predominantly link-layer packetized approach. Through analysis and experiments on CC2420-based platforms, we find these cross-layer protocols consume up to 40-50 % less energy than XMAC and 30 % less energy than BMAC under reasonable workloads. Furthermore, BoX-MAC-2 yields up to 46 % more throughput than its XMAC counterpart. Together, BoX-MAC protocols provide a comprehensive set of low-power link-layer primitives for a wide range of network workloads. The advantages of these crosslayer MAC designs over single-layer approaches provide insight on requirements for future radio chip and platform designs. 1.
Data Forwarding in Extremely Low Duty-Cycle Sensor Networks with Unreliable Communication Links
, 2007
"... In extremely low duty-cycle sensor networks, end-to-end communications cannot afford to maintain an always-awake communication backbone. Low duty-cycle, accompanied by the unreliable nature of wireless communication, makes it essential to design a new data forwarding scheme for such networks, so as ..."
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Cited by 54 (13 self)
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In extremely low duty-cycle sensor networks, end-to-end communications cannot afford to maintain an always-awake communication backbone. Low duty-cycle, accompanied by the unreliable nature of wireless communication, makes it essential to design a new data forwarding scheme for such networks, so as to achieve network energy efficiency, reliability, and timeliness in an integrated fashion. In this work, we introduce the concept of Dynamic Switchbased Forwarding (DSF) that optimizes the (i) expected data delivery ratio, (ii) expected communication delay, or (iii) expected energy consumption. DSF is designed for networks with possibly unreliable communication links and predetermined node communication schedules. Interestingly, we reveal that allowingopportunisticlooping can actually reduce the end-to-end delay. To our knowledge, these are the most encouraging results to date in this new research direction. In this paper, DSF is evaluated with a theoretical analysis, extensive simulation, and physical testbed consisting of 20 MicaZ motes. Results reveal the remarkable advantage of DSF in extremely low duty-cycle sensor networks in comparison to three well-known solutions (ETX [3], PRR×D [19] and DESS [16]). We also demonstrate our solution defaults into ETX in always-awake networks and DESS in perfect-link networks.
TSMP: Time Synchronized Mesh Protocol
- In Proceedings of the IASTED International Symposium on Distributed Sensor Networks (DSN08
, 2008
"... The Time Synchronized Mesh Protocol (TSMP) enables reliable, low power, secure communication in a managed wireless mesh network. TSMP is a medium access and networking protocol designed for the recently ratified Wireless HART standard in industrial automation. TSMP benefits from synchronization of n ..."
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Cited by 51 (2 self)
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The Time Synchronized Mesh Protocol (TSMP) enables reliable, low power, secure communication in a managed wireless mesh network. TSMP is a medium access and networking protocol designed for the recently ratified Wireless HART standard in industrial automation. TSMP benefits from synchronization of nodes in a multi-hop network to within a few hundred microseconds, allowing scheduling of collision-free pair-wise and broadcast communication to meet the traffic needs of all nodes while cycling through all available channels. Latency and reliability guarantees can be traded off for energy use, though our focus has been on providing high reliability (>99.9%) networks at the lowest power possible. TSMP has been demonstrated in multi-hop networks exceeding 250 nodes per access point, thousands of nodes with multiple access points, radio duty cycles of 0.01%, and with devices at radically different temperatures and traffic levels. With the 802.15.4 physical layer and 10 ms time slots, TSMP can theoretically achieve a secure payload throughput of 76 kbps at a single egress point.
Crankshaft: An energy-efficient MAC-protocol for dense wireless sensor networks
- in Proceedings of the 4th European Conference on Wireless Sensor Networks (EWSN 2007
, 2007
"... Abstract. This paper introduces Crankshaft, a MAC protocol specifically targeted at dense wireless sensor networks. Crankshaft employs node synchronisation and offset wake-up schedules to combat the main cause of inefficiency in dense networks: overhearing by neighbouring nodes. Further energy savin ..."
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Cited by 48 (9 self)
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Abstract. This paper introduces Crankshaft, a MAC protocol specifically targeted at dense wireless sensor networks. Crankshaft employs node synchronisation and offset wake-up schedules to combat the main cause of inefficiency in dense networks: overhearing by neighbouring nodes. Further energy savings are gained by using efficient channel polling and contention resolution techniques. Simulations show that Crankshaft achieves high delivery ratios at low power consumption under the common convergecast traffic pattern in dense networks. This performance is achieved by trading broadcast bandwidth for energy efficiency. Finally, tests with a TinyOS implementation demonstrate the real-world feasibility of the protocol.
Dw-mac: a low latency, energy efficient demand-wakeup mac protocol for wireless sensor networks
- Proceedings of the 9th ACM international
, 2008
"... Duty cycling is a widely used mechanism in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to reduce energy consumption due to idle listening, but this mechanism also introduces additional latency in packet delivery. Several schemes have been proposed to mitigate this latency, but they are mainly optimized for ligh ..."
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Cited by 47 (4 self)
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Duty cycling is a widely used mechanism in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to reduce energy consumption due to idle listening, but this mechanism also introduces additional latency in packet delivery. Several schemes have been proposed to mitigate this latency, but they are mainly optimized for light traffic loads. A WSN, however, could often experience bursty and high traffic loads, such as due to broadcast or convergecast traffic. In this paper, we present a new MAC protocol, called Demand Wakeup MAC (DW-MAC), that introduces a new low-overhead scheduling algorithm that allows nodes to wake up on demand during the Sleep period of an operational cycle and ensures that data transmissions do not collide at their intended receivers. This demand wakeup adaptively increases effective channel capacity during an operational cycle as traffic load increases, allowing DW-MAC to achieve low delivery latency under a wide range of traffic loads including both unicast and broadcast traffic. We compare DW-MAC with S-MAC (with and without adaptive listening) and with RMAC using ns-2 and show that DW-MAC outperforms these protocols, with increasing benefits as traffic load increases. For example, under high unicast traffic load, DW-MAC reduces delivery latency by 70 % compared to S-MAC and RMAC, and uses only 50 % of the energy consumed with S-MAC with adaptive listening. Under broadcast traffic, DW-MAC reduces latency by more than 50 % on average while maintaining higher energy efficiency.
