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An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance

by Toni Schmader, Michael Johns - Psychological Review , 2008
"... Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine ..."
Abstract - Cited by 84 (9 self) - Add to MetaCart
Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and selfregulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.

Stereotype threat and working memory: Mechanisms, alleviation, and spillover

by Sian L. Beilock, Robert J. Rydell, Allen R. Mcconnell - Journal of Experimental Psychology. General , 2007
"... Stereotype threat (ST) occurs when the awareness of a negative stereotype about a social group in a particular domain produces suboptimal performance by members of that group. Although ST has been repeatedly demonstrated, far less is known about how its effects are realized. Using mathematical probl ..."
Abstract - Cited by 54 (4 self) - Add to MetaCart
Stereotype threat (ST) occurs when the awareness of a negative stereotype about a social group in a particular domain produces suboptimal performance by members of that group. Although ST has been repeatedly demonstrated, far less is known about how its effects are realized. Using mathematical problem solving as a test bed, the authors demonstrate in 5 experiments that ST harms math problems that rely heavily on working memory resources—especially phonological aspects of this system. Moreover, by capitalizing on an understanding of the cognitive mechanisms by which ST exerts its impact, the authors show (a) how ST can be alleviated (e.g., by heavily practicing once-susceptible math problems such that they are retrieved directly from long-term memory rather than computed via a working-memory-intensive algorithm) and (b) when it will spill over onto subsequent tasks unrelated to the stereotype in question but dependent on the same cognitive resources that stereotype threat also uses. The current work extends the knowledge of the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat and demonstrates how its effects can be attenuated and propagated.
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Anxiety selectively disrupts visuospatial working memory

by Alexander J. Shackman, Issidoros Sarinopoulos, Jeffrey S. Maxwell, Diego A. Pizzagalli, Aureliu Lavric, Richard J. Davidson - EMOTION , 2006
"... On the basis of a review of the extant literature describing emotion–cognition interactions, the authors propose 4 methodological desiderata for studying how task-irrelevant affect modulates cognition and present data from an experiment satisfying them. Consistent with accounts of the hemispheric as ..."
Abstract - Cited by 46 (6 self) - Add to MetaCart
On the basis of a review of the extant literature describing emotion–cognition interactions, the authors propose 4 methodological desiderata for studying how task-irrelevant affect modulates cognition and present data from an experiment satisfying them. Consistent with accounts of the hemispheric asymme-tries characterizing withdrawal-related negative affect and visuospatial working memory (WM) in prefrontal and parietal cortices, threat-induced anxiety selectively disrupted accuracy of spatial but not verbal WM performance. Furthermore, individual differences in physiological measures of anxiety statistically mediated the degree of disruption. A second experiment revealed that individuals charac-terized by high levels of behavioral inhibition exhibited more intense anxiety and relatively worse spatial WM performance in the absence of threat, solidifying the authors ’ inference that anxiety causally mediates disruption. These observations suggest a revision of extant models of how anxiety sculpts cognition and underscore the utility of the desiderata.
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Executive functions and self-regulation.

by Wilhelm Hofmann , Brandon J Schmeichel , Alan D Baddeley - Trends in Cognitive Sciences, , 2012
"... Self-regulation is a core aspect of adaptive human behavior that has been studied, largely in parallel, through the lenses of social and personality psychology as well as cognitive psychology. Here, we argue for more communication between these disciplines and highlight recent research that speaks ..."
Abstract - Cited by 24 (1 self) - Add to MetaCart
Self-regulation is a core aspect of adaptive human behavior that has been studied, largely in parallel, through the lenses of social and personality psychology as well as cognitive psychology. Here, we argue for more communication between these disciplines and highlight recent research that speaks to their connection. We outline how basic facets of executive functioning (working memory operations, behavioral inhibition, and taskswitching) may subserve successful self-regulation. We also argue that temporary reductions in executive functions underlie many of the situational risk factors identified in the social psychological research on selfregulation and review recent evidence that the training of executive functions holds significant potential for improving poor self-regulation in problem populations.
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On the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat: Can skills that don’t rely heavily on working memory still be threatened

by Sian L. Beilock, William A. Jellison, Robert J. Rydell, Allen R. Mcconnell, Thomas H. Carr - Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 2006
"... For example, when negative stereotypes are activated, African Americans perform worse on tasks described as assessing intelligence (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995), Whites perform worse on tasks described as assessing natural athletic ability (e.g., Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999), an ..."
Abstract - Cited by 22 (5 self) - Add to MetaCart
For example, when negative stereotypes are activated, African Americans perform worse on tasks described as assessing intelligence (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995), Whites perform worse on tasks described as assessing natural athletic ability (e.g., Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999), and women perform worse on math-related tasks (e.g., Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999). Although the prevalence of stereotype threat effects has been widely demonstrated across many diverse social groups and task types, relatively less is known about the cogni-tive processes that underlie these effects (Wheeler & Petty, 2001). That is, how does activating a negative performance-related stereotype lead to less-than-optimal skill execution among members of the stereotyped group?
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Stereotype Threat Reinterpreted as a Regulatory Mismatch

by Lisa R. Grimm, Arthur B. Markman, W. Todd Maddox, Grant C. Baldwin , 2009
"... Research documents performance decrements resulting from the activation of a negative task-relevant stereotype. We combine a number of strands of work to identify causes of stereotype threat in a way that allows us to reverse the effects and improve the performance of individuals with negative task ..."
Abstract - Cited by 21 (7 self) - Add to MetaCart
Research documents performance decrements resulting from the activation of a negative task-relevant stereotype. We combine a number of strands of work to identify causes of stereotype threat in a way that allows us to reverse the effects and improve the performance of individuals with negative task-relevant stereotypes. We draw on prior work suggesting that negative stereotypes induce a prevention focus, and other research suggesting that people exhibit greater flexibility when their regulatory focus matches the reward structure of the task. This work suggests that stereotype threat effects emerge from a prevention focus combined with tasks that have an explicit or implicit gains reward structure. We find flexible performance can be induced in individuals who have a negative task-relevant stereotype by using a losses reward structure. We demonstrate the interaction of stereotypes and the reward structure of the task using chronic stereotypes and GRE math problems (Experiment 1), and primed stereotypes and a category learning task (Experiments 2a and 2b). We discuss implications of this research for other work on stereotype threat.

When does haste make waste? Speed-accuracy tradeoff, skill level, and the tools of the trade

by Sian L. Beilock, Bennett I. Bertenthal, Michael Hoerger, Thomas H. Carr - Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied , 2008
"... Novice and skilled golfers took a series of golf putts with a standard putter (Exp. 1) or a distorted funny putter (consisting of an s-shaped and arbitrarily weighted putter shaft; Exp. 2) under instructions to either (a) take as much time as needed to be accurate or to (b) putt as fast as possible ..."
Abstract - Cited by 11 (2 self) - Add to MetaCart
Novice and skilled golfers took a series of golf putts with a standard putter (Exp. 1) or a distorted funny putter (consisting of an s-shaped and arbitrarily weighted putter shaft; Exp. 2) under instructions to either (a) take as much time as needed to be accurate or to (b) putt as fast as possible while still being accurate. Planning and movement time were measured for each putt. In both experiments, novices produced the typical speed–accuracy trade-off. Going slower, in terms of both the planning and movement components of execution, improved performance. In contrast, skilled golfers benefited from reduced performance time when using the standard putter in Exp. 1 and, specifically, taking less time to plan improved performance. In Exp. 2, skilled golfers improved by going slower when using the funny putter, but only when it was unfamiliar. Thus, skilled performance benefits from speed instructions when wielding highly familiar tools (i.e., the standard putter) is harmed when using new tools (i.e., the funny putter), and benefits again by speed instructions as the new tool becomes familiar. Planning time absorbs these changes.
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Stereotype threat and group differences in test performance: A question of measurement invariance

by Jelte M Wicherts , Conor V Dolan , David J Hessen - Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 2005
"... Studies into the effects of stereotype threat (ST) on test performance have shed new light on race and sex differences in achievement and intelligence test scores. In this article, the authors relate ST theory to the psychometric concept of measurement invariance and show that ST effects may be vie ..."
Abstract - Cited by 9 (0 self) - Add to MetaCart
Studies into the effects of stereotype threat (ST) on test performance have shed new light on race and sex differences in achievement and intelligence test scores. In this article, the authors relate ST theory to the psychometric concept of measurement invariance and show that ST effects may be viewed as a source of measurement bias. As such, ST effects are detectable by means of multigroup confirmatory factor analysis. This enables research into the generalizability of ST effects to real-life or high-stakes testing. The modeling approach is described in detail and applied to 3 experiments in which the amount of ST for minorities and women was manipulated. Results indicate that ST results in measurement bias of intelligence and mathematics tests.
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Gender differences disappear with exposure to competition. Working Paper 2010-11

by Christopher Cotton, Frank Mcintyre, Joseph Price , 2009
"... Past research finds that males outperform females in competitive situations. Using data from multiple-round math tournaments, we verify this finding during the initial round of competition. The performance gap between males and females, however, dis-appears after the first round. In later rounds, on ..."
Abstract - Cited by 7 (0 self) - Add to MetaCart
Past research finds that males outperform females in competitive situations. Using data from multiple-round math tournaments, we verify this finding during the initial round of competition. The performance gap between males and females, however, dis-appears after the first round. In later rounds, only math ability (not gender) serves as a significant predictor of performance. Several possible explanations are discussed. The results suggest that we should be cautious about using data from one-round ex-periments to generalize about behavior. (JEL J16, C93)

Using regulatory focus to explore implicit and explicit processing in concept learning

by Arthur B. Markman, W. Todd Maddox, Darrell A. Worthy, Grant C. Baldwin - Journal of Consciousness Studies , 2007
"... Abstract: Complex cognitive processes like concept learning involve a mixture of redundant explicit and implicit processes that are active simultaneously. This aspect of cognitive architecture creates difficulties in determining the influence of consciousness on processing. We propose that the inter ..."
Abstract - Cited by 6 (5 self) - Add to MetaCart
Abstract: Complex cognitive processes like concept learning involve a mixture of redundant explicit and implicit processes that are active simultaneously. This aspect of cognitive architecture creates difficulties in determining the influence of consciousness on processing. We propose that the interaction between an individual’s regulatory focus and the reward structure of the current task influences the degree to which explicit processing is active. Thus, by manipulating people’s motivational state and the nature of the task they perform, we can vary the influence of conscious processing in cognitive performance. We demonstrate the utility of this view by focusing on studies in which people acquire new perceptual concepts by learning to classify them. This technique will allow us to better tease apart the roles of explicit and implicit processing in a variety of cognitive tasks. As Cognitive Psychologists, we are often led astray by the labels we place on our phenomena. We study processes like attention, concept formation and memory. By giving each of these processes a label, we reify it and thereby give it more unity than it may deserve. What research is beginning to make plain, however, is that the traditional labels used by cognitive psychologists refer to input-output relationships
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