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192
Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2003
"... behavior relations Greenwald et al. Predictive validity of the IAT (Draft of 30 Dec 2008) 2 Abstract (131 words) This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects), found average r=.274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implic ..."
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Cited by 632 (94 self)
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behavior relations Greenwald et al. Predictive validity of the IAT (Draft of 30 Dec 2008) 2 Abstract (131 words) This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects), found average r=.274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures. Parallel explicit (i.e., self-report) measures, available in 156 of these samples (13,068 subjects), also predicted effectively (average r=.361), but with much greater variability of effect size. Predictive validity of self-report was impaired for socially sensitive topics, for which impression management may distort self-report responses. For 32 samples with criterion measures involving Black–White interracial behavior, predictive validity of IAT measures significantly exceeded that of self-report measures. Both IAT and self-report measures displayed incremental validity, with each measure predicting criterion variance beyond that predicted by the other. The more highly IAT and self-report measures were intercorrelated, the greater was the predictive validity of each.
Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2000
"... Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-repor ..."
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Cited by 257 (24 self)
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Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity—femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures. This research developed from the assumption that distinct im-plicit and explicit self-esteem constructs require different measure-ment strategies. In particular, the research pursued implications of Greenwald and Banaji's (1995) definition of implicit self-esteem as "the introspectively unidentified (or inaccurately identified) effect of the self-attitude on evaluation of self-associated and
Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2006
"... A central theme in recent research on attitudes is the distinction between deliberate, “explicit ” attitudes and automatic, “implicit ” attitudes. The present article provides an integrative review of the available evidence on implicit and explicit attitude change that is guided by a distinction bet ..."
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Cited by 208 (6 self)
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A central theme in recent research on attitudes is the distinction between deliberate, “explicit ” attitudes and automatic, “implicit ” attitudes. The present article provides an integrative review of the available evidence on implicit and explicit attitude change that is guided by a distinction between associative and propositional processes. Whereas associative processes are characterized by mere activation independent of subjective truth or falsity, propositional reasoning is concerned with the validation of evaluations and beliefs. The proposed associative–propositional evaluation (APE) model makes specific assumptions about the mutual interplay of the 2 processes, implying several mechanisms that lead to symmetric or asymmetric changes in implicit and explicit attitudes. The model integrates a broad range of empirical evidence and implies several new predictions for implicit and explicit attitude change.
A meta-analysis on the correlation between the Implicit Association Test and explicit selfreport measures.
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
, 2005
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The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2002
"... Three studies examined the moderating role of motivations to respond without prejudice (e.g., internal and external) in expressions of explicit and implicit race bias. In all studies, participants reported their explicit attitudes toward Blacks. Implicit measures consisted of a sequential priming ta ..."
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Cited by 112 (13 self)
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Three studies examined the moderating role of motivations to respond without prejudice (e.g., internal and external) in expressions of explicit and implicit race bias. In all studies, participants reported their explicit attitudes toward Blacks. Implicit measures consisted of a sequential priming task (Study 1) and the Implicit Association Test (Studies 2 and 3). Study 3 used a cognitive busyness manipulation to preclude effects of controlled processing on implicit responses. In each study, explicit race bias was moderated by internal motivation to respond without prejudice, whereas implicit race bias was moderated by the interaction of internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Specifically, high internal, low external participants exhibited lower levels of implicit race bias than did all other participants. Implications for the development of effective self-regulation of race bias are discussed. Researchers have long been interested in why people respond with prejudice against those who are different (e.g., in their eth-nicity, gender, or sexual orientation). Even with changes to social norms, which now discourage expressions of prejudice, and changes in many people’s self-reported attitudes, prejudice is still a major factor in contemporary American society. One explanation for the persistence of prejudice, even among those who renounce prejudice, may simply be that responding without prejudice is sometimes difficult. To respond without prejudice toward out-group members, an individual must overcome years of exposure to biased and stereotypical information that is likely to influence responses toward out-group members (Devine, 1989). The control of prejudice, like the successful completion of any complex be-havior, may require the development of effective regulatory strat-
Underlying processes in the implicit Association test (iAt): Dissociating salience from associations.
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,
, 2004
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The go/no-go association task
- Social Cognition
, 2001
"... Theory is constrained by the quality and versatility of measurement tools. As such, the development of techniques for measurement is critical to the successful development of theory. This paper presents a technique — the Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) — that joins a family of existing techniques ..."
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Cited by 102 (17 self)
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Theory is constrained by the quality and versatility of measurement tools. As such, the development of techniques for measurement is critical to the successful development of theory. This paper presents a technique — the Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) — that joins a family of existing techniques for measuring implicit social cognition generally, with a focus on attitude (evaluation). To expand the measurement potential supplied by its closest cousin, the Implicit Association Test (IAT), the GNAT can be used to examine automatic social cognition toward a single target category. That is, the GNAT obtains a measure of implicit social cognition without requiring the direct involvement of complementary or contrasting objects. Also, by implementing a response deadline in the procedure, this version of the GNAT trades off response latency for sensitivity as the dependent variable measure. We illustrate the technique through a series of experiments (1-5) using simple attitude objects (bugs and fruit). In Experiment 6, the GNAT is used to investigateattitudes toward race (black and white) and gender (male and female). To explore the theoretical leverageoffered by this tool, Experiment 6 puts to test a recurring question
Secure and defensive high self-esteem
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2003
"... Long-standing theories have suggested high self-esteem (SE) can assume qualitatively different forms that are related to defensiveness. The authors explored whether some high-SE individuals are particularly defensive because they harbor negative self-feelings at less conscious levels, indicated by l ..."
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Cited by 90 (2 self)
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Long-standing theories have suggested high self-esteem (SE) can assume qualitatively different forms that are related to defensiveness. The authors explored whether some high-SE individuals are particularly defensive because they harbor negative self-feelings at less conscious levels, indicated by low implicit SE. In Study 1, participants high in explicit SE but low in implicit SE showed the highest levels of narcissism—an indicator of defensiveness. In Studies 2 and 3, the correspondence between implicit and explicit SE predicted defensive behavior (in-group bias in Study 2 and dissonance reduction in Study 3), such that for high explicit-SE participants, those with relatively low implicit SE behaved more defen-sively. These results are consistent with the idea that high SE can be relatively secure or defensive. Although high self-esteem (SE) is typically viewed as an indi-cator of psychological health, conflicting views of its adaptive value can be found in both the SE literature and the broader culture. On the one hand, the popular media bombards people with the message that high SE reflects optimal functioning and that it is a necessary precursor to productivity and happiness (see Baumeis-ter, 1998). Indeed, positive self-views are associated with less depression (Tennen & Affleck, 1993), less neuroticism (Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001), greater persistence at difficult tasks (Shrauger & Rosenberg, 1970), and higher levels of life satisfaction (Diener, 1984). Yet when positive self-views are cast as vanity, conceit, arrogance, or narcissism, they assume more negative connotations. Rather than indicating healthy adjustment and well-being, overly positive self-opinions can signal maladjust-ment and delusion (Colvin, Block, & Funder, 1995). In this vein, positive self-views have been linked to a number of behaviors that can be viewed as defensive and potentially maladaptive, such as
Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery
- Journal of Personality & Social Psychology
, 2001
"... Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery ..."
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Cited by 83 (2 self)
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Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages. Implicit stereotypes are social category associations that become activated without the perceiver's intention or awareness when he or she is presented with a category cue. Over the past decade, substantial evidence has accumulated for the influence of implicit stereotypes on judgment and behavior (for reviews, see Bargh,
Challenging implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions in young heavy drinkers
- Addiction
, 2005
"... D. E. McGhee, & J. L. Schwartz) and related explicit measures. Heavy drinkers (n 24) strongly associated alcohol with arousal on the arousal IAT (especially men) and scored higher on explicit arousal expectancies than light drinkers (n 24). On the valence IAT, both light and heavy drinkers sh ..."
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Cited by 74 (13 self)
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D. E. McGhee, & J. L. Schwartz) and related explicit measures. Heavy drinkers (n 24) strongly associated alcohol with arousal on the arousal IAT (especially men) and scored higher on explicit arousal expectancies than light drinkers (n 24). On the valence IAT, both light and heavy drinkers showed strong negative implicit associations with alcohol that contrasted with their positive explicit judgments (heavy drinkers were more positive). Implicit and explicit cognitions uniquely contributed to the prediction of 1-month prospective drinking. Heavy drinkers ’ implicit arousal associations could reflect the sensitized psychomotor-activating response to drug cues, a motivational mechanism hypothesized to underlie the etiology of addictive behaviors. During the past 2 decades, alcohol-related cognitions have re-ceived considerable attention in psychological theories on the etiology of alcohol use disorders. Several cognitive–motivational constructs have been proposed to predict alcohol use and abuse, such as outcome expectancies (e.g., Goldman, Del Boca, & Darkes, 1999), attitudes (e.g., Burden & Maisto, 2000), and mo-tives (e.g., Cooper, Frone, Russell, & Mudar, 1995). These ap-
