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The Elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding
- Neuropsychological Review
, 2007
"... Abstract Executive functions include abilities of goal formation, planning, carrying out goal-directed plans, and effective performance. This article aims at reviewing some of the current knowledge surrounding executive functioning and presenting the contrasting views regarding this concept. The neu ..."
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Abstract Executive functions include abilities of goal formation, planning, carrying out goal-directed plans, and effective performance. This article aims at reviewing some of the current knowledge surrounding executive functioning and presenting the contrasting views regarding this concept. The neural substrates of the executive system are examined as well as the evolution of executive functioning, from development to decline. There is clear evidence of the vulnerability of executive functions to the effects of age over lifespan. The first executive function to emerge in children is the ability to inhibit overlearned behavior and the last to appear is verbal fluency. Inhibition of irrelevant information seems to decline earlier than set shifting and verbal fluency during senescence. The sequential progres-sion and decline of these functions has been paralleled with the anatomical changes of the frontal lobe and its connections with other brain areas. Generalization of the results presented here are limited due to methodological differences across studies. Analysis of these differences is presented and suggestions for future research are offered.
Report on Review
- of INCIS Project, Schedule 6 in (Small
, 1993
"... Consciousness is an active process with multiple components. The ascending reticular activating system has multiple anatomical and neurochemical components in the rostral brainstem tegmentum, thalamus, and cortex, and is responsible for alertness, a prerequisite for maximal awareness. Awareness also ..."
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Consciousness is an active process with multiple components. The ascending reticular activating system has multiple anatomical and neurochemical components in the rostral brainstem tegmentum, thalamus, and cortex, and is responsible for alertness, a prerequisite for maximal awareness. Awareness also has multiple facets. Sensations, after initial reception in the cortex, are further selected and processed in connected regions. Perception involves the abstraction of selected sensory information, allowing a limited concept of what is happening in the external world and within the body. Attention directs and selects certain information to the exclusion of others. Information is transiently held in working memory to allow for immediate action and decisions. Some forms of memory are accompanied by conscious awareness that is proposed to be necessary for the provision of a sense of continuity in everyday life. Motivation is involved with prioritizing and choosing behavior. The brain also has the capacity for self-awareness, ie, awareness that one has certain cognitive and mental processes. Cognition or thought, traditionally at the “highest level ” of cognitive functioning (eg, deductive reasoning), involves the synthesis of the above-listed components. Arch Neurol. 1999;56:153-157 William James 1 defined consciousness as awareness of oneself (or one’s own cognitive experience) and the environment. This apparently simple definition belies complex brain functions that involve numerous discrete, if interrelated, qualities and components. These components and their anatomical substrates are illustrated in theFigure. We discuss the 2 major components, alertness and awareness, separately, although they are strongly interconnected. Within each there are, again, multiple elements that will be individually addressed. ALERTNESS The alertness or wakefulness component is dependent on the ascending reticular activating system in the upper brainstem tegmentum and midline and intralaminar nuclei
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"... Altered orbitofrontal sulcogyral patterns in adult males with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders ..."
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Altered orbitofrontal sulcogyral patterns in adult males with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders
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"... Altered orbitofrontal sulcogyral patterns in adult males with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders ..."
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Altered orbitofrontal sulcogyral patterns in adult males with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders
