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The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory. (2007)

by N Unsworth, R W Engle
Venue:Psychological Review,
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On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex spans and their relation to higher-order abilities

by Nash Unsworth, Randall W. Engle - Psychological Bulletin
"... Research has suggested that short-term memory and working memory (as measured by simple and complex span tasks, respectively) are separate constructs that are differentially related to higher order cognitive abilities. This claim is critically evaluated by reviewing research that has compared simple ..."
Abstract - Cited by 49 (3 self) - Add to MetaCart
Research has suggested that short-term memory and working memory (as measured by simple and complex span tasks, respectively) are separate constructs that are differentially related to higher order cognitive abilities. This claim is critically evaluated by reviewing research that has compared simple and complex span tasks in both experimental and correlational studies. In addition, a meta-analysis and re-analyses of key data sets were conducted. The review and analyses suggest that simple and complex span tasks largely measure the same basic subcomponent processes (e.g., rehearsal, maintenance, updating, controlled search) but differ in the extent to which these processes operate in a particular task. These differences largely depend on the extent to which phonological processes are maximized and variability from long list lengths is present. Potential methodological, psychometric, and assessment implications are discussed and a theoretical account of the data is proposed.

On the relative independence of thinking biases and cognitive ability.

by K E Stanovich, R F West - Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, , 2008
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Abstract - Cited by 37 (0 self) - Add to MetaCart
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Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions

by Richard F. West, Maggie E. Toplak, Keith E. Stanovich - Journal of Educational Psychology , 2008
"... In this article, the authors argue that there are a range of effects usually studied within cognitive psychology that are legitimately thought of as aspects of critical thinking: the cognitive biases studied in the heuristics and biases literature. In a study of 793 student participants, the authors ..."
Abstract - Cited by 18 (2 self) - Add to MetaCart
In this article, the authors argue that there are a range of effects usually studied within cognitive psychology that are legitimately thought of as aspects of critical thinking: the cognitive biases studied in the heuristics and biases literature. In a study of 793 student participants, the authors found that the ability to avoid these biases was moderately correlated with a more traditional laboratory measure of critical thinking—the ability to reason logically when logic conflicts with prior belief. The correlation between these two classes of critical thinking skills was not due to a joint connection with general cognitive ability because it remained statistically significant after the variance due to cognitive ability was partialed out. Measures of thinking dispositions (actively open-minded thinking and need for cognition) predicted unique variance in both classes of critical thinking skills after general cognitive ability had been controlled.
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...ore is used as an index of cognitive ability in the analyses reported here because it loads highly on psychometric general intelligence as measured by a variety of indicators (Frey & Detterman, 2004; =-=Unsworth & Engle, 2007-=-). The total SAT score will be used in the analyses reported here. Thinking Dispositions Two thinking dispositions were measured—actively openminded thinking (Stanovich & West, 1997, 2007) and need fo...

Complex span versus updating tasks of working memory: The gap is not that deep

by Florian Schmiedek, Andrea Hildebr, Max Planck, Oliver Wilhelm, Ulman Lindenberger - Journal of Experiment Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 2009
"... How to best measure working memory capacity is an issue of ongoing debate. Besides established complex span tasks, which combine short-term memory demands with generally unrelated secondary tasks, there exists a set of paradigms characterized by continuous and simultaneous updating of several items ..."
Abstract - Cited by 18 (5 self) - Add to MetaCart
How to best measure working memory capacity is an issue of ongoing debate. Besides established complex span tasks, which combine short-term memory demands with generally unrelated secondary tasks, there exists a set of paradigms characterized by continuous and simultaneous updating of several items in working memory, such as the n-back, memory updating, or alpha span tasks. With a latent variable analysis (N 96) based on content-heterogeneous operationalizations of both task families, the authors found a latent correlation between a complex span factor and an updating factor that was not statistically different from unity (r .96). Moreover, both factors predicted fluid intelligence (reasoning) equally well. The authors conclude that updating tasks measure working memory equally well as complex span tasks. Processes involved in building, maintaining, and updating arbitrary bindings may constitute the common working memory ability underlying performance on reasoning, complex span, and updating tasks.

under review

by Chun-ta Lin, Chih-yao Lo
"... Establish a collaborative production-procurement system with contract portfolio approach ..."
Abstract - Cited by 18 (1 self) - Add to MetaCart
Establish a collaborative production-procurement system with contract portfolio approach
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... individual differences in the ability to overcome proactive interference may explain some of the correlations between complex span performance and measures of cognitive ability (Lustig et al., 2001; =-=Unsworth and Engle, 2007-=-; Blalock and McCabe, 2011). Thus, it is critically important to determine whether measures of capacity from visual change detections tasks – which are also strongly correlated with measures of cognit...

Individual differences in working memory capacity and episodic retrieval: Examining the dynamics of delayed and continuous distractor free recall

by Nash Unsworth - Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 2007
"... Two experiments explored the possibility that individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) partially reflect differences in the size of the search set from which items are retrieved. High- and low-WMC individuals were tested in delayed (Experiment 1) and continuous distractor (Experiment ..."
Abstract - Cited by 12 (3 self) - Add to MetaCart
Two experiments explored the possibility that individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) partially reflect differences in the size of the search set from which items are retrieved. High- and low-WMC individuals were tested in delayed (Experiment 1) and continuous distractor (Experiment 2) free recall with varying list lengths. Across both experiments low-WMC individuals recalled fewer items than high-WMC individuals, recalled more previous list intrusions than high-WMC individuals, and recalled at a slower rate than high-WMC individuals. It is argued that low-WMC individuals ’ episodic retrieval deficits are partially due to the fact that these individuals search through a larger set of items than high-WMC individuals. Simulations based on a random search model were consistent with these general conclusions.
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...bility to limit the search set only to relevant item representations is necessary not only in basic memory tasks but also in higher order cognitive tasks, such as reasoning and reading comprehension (=-=Unsworth & Engle, 2007-=-). Dynamics of Free Recall One model that offers a useful framework for examining possible differences in the dynamics of free recall and theoretical differences in search-set size is the random searc...

Domaingeneral mechanisms of complex working memory span

by Jason M Chein , Adam B Moore , Andrew R A Conway - Neuroimage , 2011
"... A new fMRI complex working memory span paradigm was used to identify brain regions making domaingeneral contributions to working memory task performance. For both verbal and spatial versions of the task, complex working memory span performance increased the activity in lateral prefrontal, anterior ..."
Abstract - Cited by 12 (2 self) - Add to MetaCart
A new fMRI complex working memory span paradigm was used to identify brain regions making domaingeneral contributions to working memory task performance. For both verbal and spatial versions of the task, complex working memory span performance increased the activity in lateral prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and parietal cortices during the Encoding, Maintenance, and Coordination phase of task performance. Meanwhile, overlapping activity in anterior prefrontal and medial temporal lobe regions was associated with both verbal and spatial recall from working memory. These findings help to adjudicate several contested issues regarding the executive mechanisms of working memory, the separability of short-term and working memory in the verbal and spatial domains, and the relative contribution of short-term and long-term memory mechanisms to working memory capacity. The study also provides a vital bridge between psychometric and neuroimaging approaches to working memory, and constrains our understanding of how working memory may contribute to the broader landscape of cognitive performance.
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...aver et al., 1997; Owen et al., 2005). Although a relatively small number of studies have required recall rather than recognition (Gilbert and Fiez, 2004; Osaka et al., 2004), very few studies have also included an analysis of neural activity during the recall period (cf. Chein and Fiez, 2001). This emphasis on recognition tasks, and on trial periods that precede retrieval, is unfortunate in light of recent work indicating that an important mechanism underlying individual differences in WM capacity is the ability to select and use retrieval cues to optimally focus memory search during recall (Unsworth and Engle, 2007a,b). The requirement for recall also more realistically reflects the complex cognitive behavior exhibited in such tasks as reading, reasoning, and problem solving, which all require the rapid recall of recently acquired knowledge. The present study reflects an effort to bridge the divide 551J.M. Chein et al. / NeuroImage 54 (2011) 550–559between the neuroimaging and psychometric/behavioral literatures by addressing these earlier limitations. The measurement of WM capacity Variation in WM capacity across individuals correlates strongly with performance on a range of complex cognitive tasks (e....

What’s so special about working memory?. An examination of the relationships among working memory, secondary memory, and fluid intelligence

by Jacqueline A. Mogle, Benjamin J. Lovett, Robert S. Stawski, Martin J. Sliwinski - Psychological Science , 2008
"... ABSTRACT—Working memory capacity (WMC) has received attention across many areas of psychology, in part because of its relationship with intelligence. The mechanism under-lying the relationship is unknown, but the nature of typical WMC tasks has led to two hypothesized mechanisms: secondary-memory pr ..."
Abstract - Cited by 9 (0 self) - Add to MetaCart
ABSTRACT—Working memory capacity (WMC) has received attention across many areas of psychology, in part because of its relationship with intelligence. The mechanism under-lying the relationship is unknown, but the nature of typical WMC tasks has led to two hypothesized mechanisms: secondary-memory processes (e.g., search and retrieval) and the maintenance of information in the face of distraction. In the present study, participants (N 5 383) completed a battery of cognitive tasks assessing processing speed, primary memory, working memory, secondary memory, and fluid intelligence. Secondarymemorywas the strongest predictor of fluid intelligence and added unique predictive value in models that accounted for working memory. In contrast, after accounting for the variance in fluid intelligence associated with the secondary-memory
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...eds four, which is considered to be the capacity of PM (cf. Cowan, 2001). Additionally, individuals with lower WMC make more intrusion errors, recalling items that were not in the list to be encoded (=-=Unsworth & Engle, 2007-=-). This is expected ifWMC involves retrieval from SM, because individuals with lower WMC would not effectively use cues when initially transferring information. Despite this ample empirical support, t...

About the distinction between working memory and short-term memory. Front. Psychology 3:301. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00301 This article was submitted to Frontiers in Cognition, a specialty of Frontiers

by Bart Aben , Sven Stapert , Arjan Blokland , Anna M Borghi , Marco Sandrini , Gene Brewer , Bart Aben , 2012
"... The theoretical concepts short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM) have been used to refer to the maintenance and the maintenance plus manipulation of information, respectively. Although they are conceptually different, the use of the terms STM and WM in literature is not always strict. STM a ..."
Abstract - Cited by 7 (0 self) - Add to MetaCart
The theoretical concepts short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM) have been used to refer to the maintenance and the maintenance plus manipulation of information, respectively. Although they are conceptually different, the use of the terms STM and WM in literature is not always strict. STM and WM are different theoretical concepts that are assumed to reflect different cognitive functions. However, correlational studies have not been able to separate both constructs consistently and there is evidence for a large or even complete overlap. The emerging view from neurobiological studies is partly different, although there are conceptual problems troubling the interpretation of findings. In this regard, there is a crucial role for the tasks that are used to measure STM or WM (simple and complex span tasks, respectively) and for the cognitive load reflected by factors like attention and processing speed that may covary between and within these tasks. These conceptual issues are discussed based on several abstract models for the relation between STM and WM.
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...lation of a limited amount of information before recall. Most studies use this definition when referring to WM (e.g., Cowan et al., 2005; Ranganath and D’Esposito, 2005; Postle, 2006), yet sometimes no clear distinction between STM (i.e., maintenance) and WM (i.e., maintenance plus manipulation) is made (e.g., Davidson et al., 2006; Jensen et al., 2007). Furthermore, experimental studies on WM often focus solely on the maintenance component of WM (see for example the review by D’Esposito, 2007). Finally, it has also been suggested that both concepts represent the same cognitive process (e.g., Unsworth and Engle, 2007b). The previous examples illustrate the complex entanglement of terms and definitions that can be encountered in contemporary literature. This problem is further complicated by the lack of consensus on what exactly is WM. Besides the leading model by Baddeley there exist several other models but it is hard to discover commonality between them (Miyake and Shah, 1999). Taking into consideration the enormous amount of literature on STM and/or WM that is being published, this lack of agreement is remarkable. Apparently, the adoption of the terms is ahead of its demarcation. There seems to be a di...

Task complexity, the cognition hypothesis and interaction in CMC and FTF environments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation

by Melissa Lorrain Baralt , 2010
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Abstract - Cited by 6 (0 self) - Add to MetaCart
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