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...only at a few sites. PBL emphasizes the development of skills in clinical judgment and problem-solving, relying on active, self-directed learning by the student/practitioner (Neufeld & Barrows, 1974; =-=Norman, 1988-=-; Pallie & Carr, 1987). By combining the learning of basic science with the acquisition of clinical skills, based on small group or collaborative processes, the goal is to empower students with the ab...

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...od of instruction, some fundamental distinctions of problem-solving skills,ssolving problems, and problem-based learning need to besmade. These aspects are related to theory guiding expertsperformance=-=(18)-=-. Solving problems incorporates ashypothetico-deductive reasoning where a series of hypotheses are tested mentally on unknown solutions to the problem. The process can be carried out with a minimum of...

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...termed theory-based. Definitions of PBL expressed in terms of abstract theories of pedagogy and learning abound within the educational literature (e.g., Koschmann, Kelson, Feltovich, & Barrows, 1996; =-=Norman, 1988-=-; Norman & Schmidt, 1992; Schmidt, 1983). Such forms of description are useful for positioning an instruction innovation with regard to other pedagogical theories, but are not adequate for defining a ...

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... medical schools has long been known to influence students’ study habits (Newble and Jaeger, 1983). As a result, care must be taken to ensure a match between curricular ideology and assessment procedures. As Norman (1991) has noted, generating detailed behavioural objectives as a precursor to an assessment exercise is the antithesis of problem-based, self-directed learning. Similarly, evaluation systems that encourage cramming for a formal examination do not fulfil the primary objective of PBL – promoting learning within the context in which the material will need to be retrieved in practice (Norman, 1988). Since PBL units are designed to emphasize principles of analysis and the resolution of clinical problems (Barrows and Tamblyn, 1976) the emphasis of the assessment tools should focus, at least in part, on the evaluation of the skills, processes, and attitudes of each student within the context of clinical issues. Intuitively, the most appropriate setting for implementing these evaluation ideals is the tutorial itself. Herein lies the paradox. On one hand, tutorial-based assessment is intended to allow for evaluation based on actual performance to take place within the learning environment (H...

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...t of increasing leveis of knowledge.sReasonine StrateniessVarious studies have investigated types of medical reasoning strategies and their usesbased on levels of expertise (Kuipers & Kassirer, 1984; =-=Norman, 1988-=-; Patel & Aracha,s1995; Patel & Groen, 1986; Patel, Groen, & Norman, 1993; Patel & Ramoni, 1997;sRidderikhoff, 1 99 1). An important distinction which has been widely discussed is that ofsdata-driven ...

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... & Hallinger, 1995; Christensen, 1987). In contrast to the case method, in problem-based learning the learning objectives and activities are based on the knowledge and skills needed to address problems encountered in the field, rather than on discrete competencies or disciplinary domains (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Boud & Feletti, 199). Knowledge derived from disciplinary domains remains important, but it is organized quite differently. Another critical distinction between PBL and the case method lies in the explicit use of cooperative group learning in PBL (Bridges & Hallinger, 1995; Schmidt & Norman, 1988). The essence of managerial work is being able to accomplish results through people (Bridges, 1977). In PBL the learning experience is structured so as to emphasize implementation as well as analysis and reflection (Bridges & Hallinger, 1992, 1995). The most common forms of the case method ask participants to analyze and describe what they would do if they faced a particular problematic situation. In problembased learning students are asked to develop a plan for responding to the situation and, to the extent possible, execute the plan through different forms of role-play. Thus, learners confro...

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...he patients, relatives and fellow researchers.sSecondary benefits include development of problem solving skill andscloser attention to accurate data-handling and managing MCC andsethics applications (=-=Norman, 1988-=-).s7.2.2.2sInputsThis is the driving force of the training model. It is the source ofsenergy and guidelines for the model. Through the input from thesliterature on development of the training model; i...

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...ge in solving problems are characterizedsby the availability of an extensive organized body of specialized knowledge. Further, there isssome indication that this theory is highly compatible with PBL (=-=Norman, 1988-=-). PBL, withswell-written problems, is proposed as a method of activating a student's prior knowledge.sAnother aspect of this theory is transfer of learning. If the problem is realistic in thesclassro...