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204
Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy
- AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
, 1995
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Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises
- Review of General Psychology
, 1998
"... Confirmation bias, as the term is typically used in the psychological literature, connotes the seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs, expectations, or a hypothesis in hand. The author reviews evidence of such a bias in a variety of guises and gives examples ..."
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Confirmation bias, as the term is typically used in the psychological literature, connotes the seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs, expectations, or a hypothesis in hand. The author reviews evidence of such a bias in a variety of guises and gives examples of its operation in several practical contexts. Possible explanations are considered, and the question of its utility or disutility is discussed. When men wish to construct or support a theory, how they torture facts into their service! (Mackay, 1852/ 1932, p. 552) Confirmation bias is perhaps the best known and most widely accepted notion of inferential error to come out of the literature on human reasoning. (Evans, 1989, p. 41) If one were to attempt to identify a single problematic aspect of human reasoning that deserves attention above all others, the confirmation bias would have to be among the candidates for consideration. Many have written about this bias, and it appears to be sufficiently strong and pervasive that one is led to wonder whether the bias, by itself, might account for a significant fraction of the disputes, altercations, and misunderstandings that occur among individuals, groups, and nations. Confirmation bias has been used in the psychological literature to refer to a variety of phenomena. Here I take the term to represent a generic concept that subsumes several more specific ideas that connote the inappropriate bolstering of hypotheses or beliefs whose truth is in question.
PATTERNS OF URBAN STUDENT MOBILITY AND LOCAL SCHOOL REFORM
, 1996
"... supported as a national research and development center by funds from the Office of Educational ..."
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supported as a national research and development center by funds from the Office of Educational
Self-fulfilling prophecies: a theoretical and integrative review
- Psychological Review
, 1986
"... Self-fulfilling prophecies have become a major area of research for social, personality, developmental, and educational psychologists. This article reviews classroom self-fulfilling prophecies in terms of three sequential stages: (a) Teachers develop expectations, (b) teachers treat students differe ..."
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Self-fulfilling prophecies have become a major area of research for social, personality, developmental, and educational psychologists. This article reviews classroom self-fulfilling prophecies in terms of three sequential stages: (a) Teachers develop expectations, (b) teachers treat students differently depending on their expectations, and (c) students react to this treatment in expectancy-confirming ways. The focus of the review is on the social and psychological events occurring at each of these stages, the causal processes linking one stage to the next, and the conditions limiting the occurrence of self-fulfilling prophecies. Finally, it provides a theoretical framework for both understanding past research and guiding future research on self-fulfilling prophecies. This article presents a model of the social and psychological processes underlying self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom. In general, the concept of self-fulfilling prophecy refers to situations in which one person's expectations about a second person lead the second person to act in ways that confirm the first person's original expectation. When applied to classrooms, the self-fulfilling prophecy refers to situations in which a teacher's
Health and the environment
, 1999
"... The purpose of this causal comparative study is to contribute to the understanding of Critical Race Theory by using a parametric test to compare the independent variable of human characteristics to the dependent variables of Administrative, Cultural, and Environmental / Hereditary (ACE) factors to d ..."
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The purpose of this causal comparative study is to contribute to the understanding of Critical Race Theory by using a parametric test to compare the independent variable of human characteristics to the dependent variables of Administrative, Cultural, and Environmental / Hereditary (ACE) factors to develop a picture of parents’/guardians ’ and educators ’ attitudes about factors that may explain the overrepresentation of Black males in special education programs. A total of 162 participants completed a self-reporting demographic characteristic survey and the Gresham survey to provide information on the attitudes towards the administrative, cultural, and environmental/hereditary factors that may be correlated with the overrepresentation of Black males in special education, as perceived by each stakeholder group. Participants were drawn from the sample of Black, male, high school students ’ parents/guardians and educators from 10 high schools within School System A in the metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia area. Parents/guardians included those stakeholders responsible for making legal decisions and supervising students ’ overall living. Those selected from the educator stakeholder group consisted of tutors, school teachers, and
Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology in mathematics education
, 1998
"... There is a frequent misperception that the move from behaviorism to cognitivism implied an abandonment of the possibilities of decomposing knowledge into its elements for purposes of study and decontextualizing these elements for purposes of instruction. We show that cognitivism does not imply outri ..."
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There is a frequent misperception that the move from behaviorism to cognitivism implied an abandonment of the possibilities of decomposing knowledge into its elements for purposes of study and decontextualizing these elements for purposes of instruction. We show that cognitivism does not imply outright rejection of decomposition and decontextualization. We critically analyze two movements which are based in part on this rejection--situated learning and constructivism. Situated learning commonly advocates practices that lead to overly specific learning outcomes while constructivism advocates very inefficient learning and assessment procedures. The modern information-processing approach in cognitive psychology would recommend careful analysis of the goals of instruction and thorough empirical study of the efficacy of instructional approaches. Following on the so-called "cognitive revolution " in psychology that began in the 1960s, education, and particularly mathematics and science education, has been acquiring new insights from psychology, and new approaches and instructional techniques based on these insights. At the same time, cognitive psychologists have being paying increasing attention to
The stress response
, 1997
"... Liiii-atUre and reieareh-studles conderning self-fulfilling prophecy effects are reviewed in this document. Works concerning the Pygmalion Controversy, the existence of self-fulfilling prophecy effects of teacher expectations, and the itrength and reality of these effects are cited. The document&apo ..."
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Cited by 37 (0 self)
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Liiii-atUre and reieareh-studles conderning self-fulfilling prophecy effects are reviewed in this document. Works concerning the Pygmalion Controversy, the existence of self-fulfilling prophecy effects of teacher expectations, and the itrength and reality of these effects are cited. The document's sectrons discuss the effects of teacher expectations and: (1) the appropriateness of differential teacher expectations and teacher-student interaction patterns;.(2) the mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom; (3) the role of iAdividual differences in teachers; (4) the role of individual differences in students; (5) conceptualizing self-fulfilling prophecy effects in the classroom; (6) implications for research; and (7) implications for teaching and for teacher education. It is concluded that a Minority of teachers have major expectation effects on their
High-stakes accountability in urban elementary schools: challenging or reproducing inequality
- The Teachers College Record
, 2004
"... In this article, the authors use data from interviews and observations in four urban elementary schoolsFtwo high-performing and two probation schoolsFto examine how schools respond to high-stakes accountability policies. The authors show that school responses to high-stakes accountability depend on ..."
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Cited by 35 (0 self)
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In this article, the authors use data from interviews and observations in four urban elementary schoolsFtwo high-performing and two probation schoolsFto examine how schools respond to high-stakes accountability policies. The authors show that school responses to high-stakes accountability depend on the schools ’ accountability status. In probation schools, responses focus narrowly on complying with policy demands, focusing on improving the performance of certain students, within benchmark grades, and in certain subject areas. In contrast, higher performing schools emphasize enhancing the performance of all students regardless of grade level and across all subject areas. Given the concentration of poor students and students of color in the lowest performing schools, the authors conclude that issues of educational equity need to be given greater consideration in the implementation of high stakes accountability policies. One of the most consistent findings in educational research is that family background is linked to children’s educational outcomes, attainment, and adult occupational status (Blau & Duncan, 1967; Coleman et al., 1966; Jencks et al., 1972; Orfield, 1993). While education is viewed by many as an important mechanism for social mobility, many scholars argue that schools reproduce rather than challenge social inequality. Over the past decade, policy makers have mobilized multiple policy instruments in an effort to ensure that all children receive high quality education. One increasingly popular but controversial strategy relies on external accountability mecha-nisms, including high-stakes testing, to transform instructional practices and make teachers and students more accountable for their performance. Critics argue that these policies will exacerbate inequalities by leading teachers to marginalize low-performing students (Clotfelter & Ladd, 1996;
Race and the reproduction of educational disadvantage
- Social Forces
, 1998
"... Research has uncovered many mechanisms that exacerbate racial inequalities in achievement. Due to specialization within the field, however, little focus has been devoted to the multitiered and often interconnected institutional nature of these processes. Matching data from the restricted-use Nationa ..."
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Cited by 31 (0 self)
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Research has uncovered many mechanisms that exacerbate racial inequalities in achievement. Due to specialization within the field, however, little focus has been devoted to the multitiered and often interconnected institutional nature of these processes. Matching data from the restricted-use National Educational Longitudinal Survey and the Common Core of Data, I hierarchically model the influence of family/peer and educational institutional processen simultaneously on the black-white gap in achievement. The modeling strategy used offers a more comprehensive understanding of the reproductive interinstitutional dynamics at work, suggesting strong linkages between family/peer group attributen and access to educational resources. I conclude by suggesting the need to extend this line of inquiry a step further stilt, developinga theoretically driven contextual and spatial understanding of educational opportunity and achievement. The fortieth anniversary of the Brown vs. Board of Education decision was witness to enduring inequalities in educational opportunity and, consequently, educational outcomes. Substantial gains have indeed been made, and racial gaps have declined,
Teacher Expectation: Socio-psychological Dynamics
- Review of Educational Research
, 1976
"... The teacher is without question the key to a successful class-room learning experience. Acceptance of this statement is no longer confined to the pages of educational literature; its full impact is evidenced in the mounting allocation of funds for teacher improvement. If there is agreement on the pa ..."
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Cited by 29 (0 self)
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The teacher is without question the key to a successful class-room learning experience. Acceptance of this statement is no longer confined to the pages of educational literature; its full impact is evidenced in the mounting allocation of funds for teacher improvement. If there is agreement on the paramount importance of the teacher's personality in classroom learning, there is much less agreement on the different ways in which the teacher's personality affects the learning of different children. Exactly how the dynamics of teacher personality operate to effect differential performance is one of the prime questions facing the instructional theorist. Although unequivocal answers await empirical investigation, educators and social scientists in the past decade have produced research at least to formulate tenable hypotheses regarding pupil-teacher interaction. One of these hypotheses suggests that the teacher for varied reasons perceives competencies and potentialities of children differently and that these expectancies are reflected in his interactions with children to produce differential performance among learners, thus fulfilling his prophecy. "Teacher expectation, " "self-fulfilling prophecy " and "teacher faith " have been coined to imply this tendency for the teacher to create a reality commen-surate with his perceptions. Furthermore, the learner, while creating his own reality, shadows substantially the reality form-ing in the teacher's mind. That these basic concepts underlying self-fulfilling prophecy
