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The proactive brain: using analogies and associations to generate predictions
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(7):280 - 289
, 2007
"... Rather than passively 'waiting' to be activated by sensations, it is proposed that the human brain is continuously busy generating predictions that approximate the relevant future. Building on previous work, this proposal posits that rudimentary information is extracted rapidly from the i ..."
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Cited by 155 (7 self)
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Rather than passively 'waiting' to be activated by sensations, it is proposed that the human brain is continuously busy generating predictions that approximate the relevant future. Building on previous work, this proposal posits that rudimentary information is extracted rapidly from the input to derive analogies linking that input with representations in memory. The linked stored representations then activate the associations that are relevant in the specific context, which provides focused predictions. These predictions facilitate perception and cognition by pre-sensitizing relevant representations. Predictions regarding complex information, such as those required in social interactions, integrate multiple analogies. This cognitive neuroscience framework can help explain a variety of phenomena, ranging from recognition to first impressions, and from the brain's 'default mode' to a host of mental disorders. General framework When we are immersed in the world of neuroscience findings, the brain might seem like a collection of many little modules, each expert in a specific task. Is it possible that, instead, one can account for much of the brain's operation using a small set of unifying principles? One such principle could be that the brain is proactive in that it regularly anticipates the future, a proposal that has been promoted in the past in different forms and contexts. Specifically, I propose that the cognitive brain relies on memory-based predictions, and these predictions are generated continually either based on gist information gleaned from the senses or driven by thought. The emphasis in this proposal is on the analogical link to memory and the role of associations in predictions, as well as on the idea that we use rudimentary information to generate these predictions efficiently. Furthermore, by developing this framework using a cognitive neuroscience approach and a minimalistic terminology, key concepts can directly be tested and used in empirical and theoretical future research. The proposed account integrates three primary components. The first is associations, which are formed by a lifetime of extracting repeating patterns and statistical regularities from our environment, and storing them in memory. The second is the concept of analogies, whereby we seek correspondence between a novel input and existing representations in memory (e.g. 'what does this look like?'). Finally, these analogies activate associated representations that translate into predictions Each of these key components -associations, analogies and predictions -has been the focus of rich and active research for a long time. By connecting these concepts in one unifying principle of memory-based predictions, the framework proposed here builds on this valuable background to emphasize the functional coherence between the three processes. To make the underlying mechanism more explicit, I will elaborate on each of the elements that mediate the generation of predictions. I will start with the proposal that the foundation of predictions is provided by the associative nature of memory organization. Associations as the building blocks of predictions How does our experience translate into focused, testable predictions? The answer proposed is that memory is used to generate predictions via associative activation. In memory, our experiences are represented in structures that cluster together related information. For example, objects that tend to appear together are linked on some level, and these representations include properties that are inherent to and typical of that same experience. Such structures have been termed 'context frames' Taken together, the associative nature of memory makes it possible to take advantage of frequent trends in the environment to help interpret and anticipate immediate and future events. One basis for this proposal is provided by the literature on priming, with its various types (e.g. perceptual, semantic and contextual). These studies support
A dynamic interactive theory of person construal
, 2011
"... A dynamic interactive theory of person construal is proposed. It assumes that the perception of other people is accomplished by a dynamical system involving continuous interaction between social categories, stereotypes, high-level cognitive states, and the low-level processing of facial, vocal, and ..."
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Cited by 35 (8 self)
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A dynamic interactive theory of person construal is proposed. It assumes that the perception of other people is accomplished by a dynamical system involving continuous interaction between social categories, stereotypes, high-level cognitive states, and the low-level processing of facial, vocal, and bodily cues. This system permits lower-level sensory perception and higher-order social cognition to dynamically coordinate across multiple interactive levels of processing to give rise to stable person construals. A recurrent connectionist model of this system is described, which accounts for major findings on (a) partial parallel activation and dynamic competition in categorization and stereotyping, (b) top-down influences of high-level cognitive states and stereotype activations on categorization, (c) bottom-up category interactions due to shared perceptual features, and (d) contextual and cross-modal effects on categorization. The system’s probabilistic and continuously evolving activation states permit multiple construals to be flexibly active in parallel. These activation states are also able to be tightly yoked to ongoing changes in external perceptual cues and to ongoing changes in high-level cognitive states. The implications of a rapidly adaptive, dynamic, and interactive person construal system are discussed.
Modulation of fusiform face area following minimal exposure to motivationally relevant faces. Unpublished manuscript
, 2010
"... ■ Studies have shown that fusiform face area (FFA) activity increases with visual expertise. We present an fMRI study showing that faces from a social category made relevant by an experimental manipulation (members of an experimentally created in-group) preferentially recruited the FFA even when the ..."
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Cited by 33 (13 self)
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■ Studies have shown that fusiform face area (FFA) activity increases with visual expertise. We present an fMRI study showing that faces from a social category made relevant by an experimental manipulation (members of an experimentally created in-group) preferentially recruited the FFA even when they were matched in exposure to face stimuli from a less significant social category (members of an experimentally created out-group). Faces were randomly assigned to groups and fully counterbalancedsothatnoperceptualcues allowed participants to visually distinguish category membership. The results revealed a pattern of in-group enhancement (not out-group disregard), such that the FFA was selectively engaged following the presentation of in-group compared with out-group or unaffiliated control faces even when the intergroup distinction was arbitrary, and exposure to in-group and out-group faces was equivalent and brief. In addition, individual differences in FFA activity for in-group versus out-group faces were correlated with recognition memory differences for in-group and out-group faces. The effects of group membership on the FFA were not affected by task instruction to respond to in-group or out-group members and were functionally dissociated from early visual processing in the primary visual cortex. This study provides evidence that the FFA is sensitive to top–down influences and may be involved in subordinate level (vs. superordinate level) encoding of stimuli in the absence of long-term exposure or explicit task instructions. ■
Not so Black and White: Memory for ambiguous group members
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2009
"... Exponential increases in multiracial identities, expected over the next century, create a conundrum for perceivers accustomed to classifying people as their own- or other-race. The current research examines how perceivers resolve this dilemma with regard to the own-race bias. The authors hypothesize ..."
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Cited by 29 (10 self)
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Exponential increases in multiracial identities, expected over the next century, create a conundrum for perceivers accustomed to classifying people as their own- or other-race. The current research examines how perceivers resolve this dilemma with regard to the own-race bias. The authors hypothesized that perceivers are not motivated to include ambiguous-race individuals in the in-group and therefore have some difficulty remembering these individuals. Both racially ambiguous and other-race faces were misremembered more often than own-race faces (Study 1), though memory for ambiguous faces was improved among perceivers motivated to include biracial individuals in the in-group (Study 2). Racial labels assigned to racially ambiguous faces determined memory for these faces, suggesting that uncertainty provides the motivational context for discounting ambiguous faces in memory (Study 3). Finally, an inclusion motivation fostered cognitive associations between racially ambiguous faces and the in-group. Moreover, the extent to which perceivers associated racially ambiguous faces with the in-group predicted memory for ambiguous faces and accounted for the impact of motivation on memory (Study 4). Thus, memory for biracial individuals seems to involve a flexible person construal process shaped by motivational factors.
Motivation
- HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (5TH ED., PP. 268-316). NEW YORK: WILEY. CHAPTER 8
, 2010
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A social neuroscience approach to self and social categorisation: A new look at an old issue
, 2011
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Coordinated roles of motivation and perception in the regulation of intergroup responses: Frontal cortical asymmetry effects on the P2 event-related potential and behavior
- Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
, 2010
"... ■ Self-regulation is believed to involve changes in motivation and perception that function to promote goal-driven behavior. However, little is known about the way these processes interact during the on-line engagement of self-regulation. The present study examined the coordination of motivation, pe ..."
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Cited by 20 (7 self)
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■ Self-regulation is believed to involve changes in motivation and perception that function to promote goal-driven behavior. However, little is known about the way these processes interact during the on-line engagement of self-regulation. The present study examined the coordination of motivation, perception, and action control in White American participants as they regu-lated responses on a racial stereotyping task. Electroencephalo-graphic indices of approach motivation (left frontal cortical asymmetry) and perceptual attention to Black versus White faces (the P2 event-related potential) were assessed during task per-formance. Action control was modeled from task behavior using the process-dissociation procedure. A pattern of moderated me-diation emerged, such that stronger left frontal activity predicted larger P2 responses to race, which in turn predicted better ac-tion control, especially for participants holding positive racial attitudes. Results supported the hypothesis that motivation tunes perception to facilitate goal-directed action. Implications for the-oretical models of intergroup response regulation, the P2 com-ponent, and the relation between motivation and perception are discussed. ■
Ideology, motivated reasoning, and cognitive reflection
"... Decision scientists have identified various plausible sources of ideological polarization over climate change, gun violence, national security, and like issues that turn on empirical evidence. This paper describes a study of three of them: the predominance of heuristic-driven information processing ..."
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Cited by 12 (1 self)
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Decision scientists have identified various plausible sources of ideological polarization over climate change, gun violence, national security, and like issues that turn on empirical evidence. This paper describes a study of three of them: the predominance of heuristic-driven information processing by members of the public; ideologically motivated reasoning; and the cognitive-style correlates of political conservativism. The study generated both observational and experimental data inconsistent with the hypothesis that political conservatism is distinctively associated with either unreflective thinking or motivated reasoning. Conservatives did no better or worse than liberals on the Cognitive Reflection Test (Frederick, 2005), an objective measure of information-processing dispositions associated with cognitive biases. In addition, the study found that ideologically motivated reasoning is not a consequence of over-reliance on heuristic or intuitive forms of reasoning generally. On the contrary, subjects who scored highest in cognitive reflection were the most likely to display ideologically motivated cognition. These findings corroborated an alternative hypothesis, which identifies ideologically motivated cognition as a form of information processing that promotes individuals ’ interests in forming and maintaining beliefs that signify their loyalty to important affinity groups. The paper discusses the practical significance of these findings, including the need to develop science communication strategies that shield policy-relevant facts from the influences that turn them into divisive symbols of political identity. Keywords: 1
Financial Deprivation Prompts Consumers to Seek Scarce Goods,”
- Journal of Consumer Research,
, 2012
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D (2010) The perception and categorisation of emotional stimuli: A review. Cognition Emotion 24
"... This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express ..."
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Cited by 9 (0 self)
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This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. INVITED REVIEW The perception and categorisation of emotional stimuli: A review
