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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation (1991)
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| Venue: | Psychological Review |
| Citations: | 1683 - 27 self |
BibTeX
@ARTICLE{Markus91cultureand,
author = {Hazel Rose Markus and Shinobu Kitayama},
title = {Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation},
journal = {Psychological Review},
year = {1991},
pages = {224--253}
}
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Abstract
People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion,
Keyphrases
self-construals enables american culture many case divergent construal overt connectedness fundamental relatedness proposed herein many asian culture specific consequence unique inner attribute culture-free aspect different construal different culture relevant empirical literature individual experience inconsistent empirical finding harmonious interdependence distinct conception
