: Pictures can provide concrete metaphors, which make it easier to grasp an abstract idea. Raeder's justification of visual programming is largely psychological in nature, and can be verified only through empirical studies. The basic premise, however, is quite plausible. Programmers commonly use pictures to develop algorithms or data structures and to communicate them to other programmers. There have been several attempts to measure the benefits of visual languages and of program visualization systems. Pandey and Burnett [62] conducted an empirical comparison between Forms/3 [7] (a form-based visual language), Pascal, and APL. They investigated the usefulness of these languages in a very narrow problem domain, namely matrix multiplication. In particular, they tested how well the test subjects could solve two problems with each language: appending two matrices of compatible size, and computing the first n Fibonacci numbers. They conducted this test on 60 students. All of the students...
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