Abstract

ABSTRACT Globalization has forced many governments to change their economic policies, including tax policies, in the recent years. It has had an even greater impact on Singapore's economy due to the high degree of its openness with respect to trade and investment. In this context, Singapore undertook a major restructuring of its tax system in the early 1990s. The introduction of a modern value added tax system (goods and services tax) was part of the overall tax reform package. This paper examines how Singapore has modified its tax system to be consistent with the changes in the Singaporean economy over time and is to put itself in step with current trends in taxation. It also analyzes in detail the principal measures that the Singapore government and its tax administration took to ensure a smooth implementation of the new goods and services tax. Glenn Jenkins is an Institute Fellow at the Harvard Institute for International Development and Director of the International Tax Program. Rup Khadka is the Public Finance Expert at the Harvard Institute for International Development Tax Reform Project in Nepal and a member of the National VAT Steering Committee of Nepal. *This paper is also upcoming in Tax Notes International. The authors wish to express their gratitude to many officials of the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore for their generous assistance in providing materials and helpful comments on an earlier draft. HIID Development Discussion Paper no. 644 TAX REFORM IN SINGAPORE Glenn Jenkins and Rup Khadka Section I: The Fiscal Scene The Fiscal System Using any normal criterion for comparison, Singapore has a sound fiscal system. The government's policy aims (as the finance minister in his 1996 budget statement announced) "to provide a stable and conducive environment for the private sector to thrive. Our target is to contain expenditure within operating revenue and run a modest budget surplus over the long run, so that the public sector does not drain resources from the economy." 1 Trends and composition of public expenditure The trend and composition of public expenditure may be seen in Appendix Public expenditure includes operating and development spending. The operating spending is used for manpower, rental, maintenance of building and equipment, office supplies, etc. This constitutes about 70% of the total public expenditure. Both operating and development expenditures are included in the categories of security, social, community, and economic services. A large part of the budget (about 42%) is spent on social (education, primary health care and public housing) and community services which are followed by national security (about 36%). Economic services (transportation, civil works, research and development etc.) attract about 12% of the total. The remainder is allocated to general services and pensions. 2 Trends and composition of public revenue Singapore's revenue system has had an enviable track record. Total revenue increased from S$ 14.9 billion in 1991 to S$ 24.8 billion in 1995, at an average annual growth rate of 13.58% and higher than the corresponding rate of expenditure. Revenue is divided into tax and non-tax revenue. Tax revenue can further be divided into direct and indirect tax revenue. As indicated in Appendix Non-tax revenue comes in the form of fees and charges and other receipts. Fiscal surplus Due to the expenditure controls and a strong revenue performance, Singapore has been experiencing a budget surplus, averaging 6.86% of GDP over the last 5 years. 2 Please see detail below. Description Percentage of GDP ---------------------------------------------- The Tax System Singapore levies several taxes on income, property and commodities. Income taxes Income based taxes include the individual income tax and corporate tax. Of these taxes, individual income tax is levied with a progressive rate structure, with 10 brackets, ranging from 2% to 28%. The corporate tax is levied at a flat rate of 26%. Property taxes Property-based taxes include both estate duty and property tax. Of these taxes, property tax is levied on houses, buildings, land and tenements at a rate of 12% of the annual rental value of these properties. However, the rate is 4% in the case of owner-occupied houses. As mentioned in the following section, a rebate on tax payable is allowed effective from the date of the introduction of GST. The estate duty is levied on all immovable property situated in Singapore and on all movable property wherever situated in the case of persons domiciled in Singapore at the time of their death. It is levied only on movable and immovable property located in Singapore in the case of a person who is not domiciled in Singapore at the time of death. The rate of this tax is 5% for the first S$ 12 million and 10% on subsequent amounts. Exemption from the estate duty is granted on dwelling houses to the extent of S$ 9 million and all other property to the extent of S$ 600,000. Commodity taxes Commodity-based taxes include GST, excises, customs duties, betting and sweepstakes duties, duties on petrol, entertainment taxes, public utilities taxes and water conservation taxes. GST will be explained in the following sections. Excise duties are levied on specified commodities, manufactured in Singapore or imported from abroad into Singapore. Most of the items are subject to specific rates. However, a few commodities are also subject to ad valorem 4 rates, while a few others are subject to specific or ad valorem rates, or both. Singapore does not levy export duties, while it levies import duties on a limited number of goods such as liquor. Betting and sweepstakes duties are levied on bets and sweepstakes promoted by any racing club or association. Similarly, a private lottery duty is levied on lotteries promoted by private clubs and societies, restricted to members only, at the rate of 30% of gross proceeds. A public utilities tax is levied on water, gas, electricity, and telephone services. Similarly, a water conservation tax is levied on domestic consumers using more than a specified quantity of water per month. Section II: Rationale for GST Early Thoughts on GST 3 The idea of introducing a VAT in Singapore arose about the time when Singapore became a republic. A VAT up to the wholesale level was recommended in 1966 in place of the corporate profit tax, payroll tax and employers' provident fund contribution, protective tariffs, and miscellaneous sales taxes. 4 The main objective behind this proposal was to promote exports. 5 The idea of VAT was put forward again in 1977, when the Prime Minister expressed the idea that the VAT was suitable for Singapore. In that year, a committee was set up by the Ministry of Finance to consider introducing a VAT in Singapore. 6 The committee, in May 1980, reported that "VAT is not feasible at present and recommends instead a selective sales tax on luxury consumption items." 7 The idea of introducing a consumption-based tax, like VAT, in Singapore became popular again in the mid-1980s in light of tax reform taking place around the world, particularly since 1986 when the US government reduced the number and level of income tax rates drastically. Many other countries followed this move in order to make their economies more competitive. This became a point of concern for Singapore as well, as Singapore relied heavily 5 on income taxes. In this respect, VAT was considered an alternative to make up for the revenue loss from the reduction in income tax revenue. This is reflected in the Report of The Economic Committee of 1986, where the committee recommends that the government shift from direct to indirect taxes as its main source of revenue. 8 VAT was considered more seriously in the early 1990s. In 1990, the Finance Minister announced in Parliament that a bill on a comprehensive consumption tax would be introduced the same year. The idea was to get the legislation in place, but to defer the implementation of the tax until the real need arose for its introduction. The Ministry of Finance organized a working committee on GST in June 1990. This committee was represented by the Ministry of Finance, the Inland Revenue Department (now IRAS 9 ), the Customs and Excise Department, and the Attorney-General's Chambers. This committee in turn set up a working group to design the GST and concentrate on the formulation of draft GST legislation, which was completed in June 1991. 10 During that time, the GST Group also worked on a White Paper on GST, which was refined over the years and issued on February 9, 1993. The White Paper explained the rationale for and structure of the GST in Singapore and stated the following reasons for the introduction of the GST in Singapore. 11 a) It was necessary to restructure the whole tax system in order to make Singapore's economy internationally competitive. To this end, it was necessary to reduce the rate of income tax and to introduce GST as an alternative source of revenue. b) Singapore will be facing the problem of an aging population. In such a situation income taxes will put a greater burden on a smaller group of younger, working Singaporeans. This might inhibit growth and enterprise. It is, therefore, necessary to introduce a broad-based tax like GST to distribute the burden of taxation among a larger section of the population. As the burden of GST does not increase with an increase in income through hard work, it "preserves the incentive to work and encourages enterprise." c) GST is a tax on consumption and has several desirable features. It relieves investments and savings from the tax burden, and "rewards enterprise and strengthens economic resilience." GST relieves exports completely from the burden of internal commodity taxes through the zero-rating 12 mechanism. It is a fairer tax and is levied on a large section of the population, including the selfemployed. 6 d) GST has a self-policing mechanism 13 that facilitates administration and makes it difficult to avoid or evade this tax. The catch-up effect 14 further reduces the possibility of revenue loss through the understatement of the taxable value at an earlier stage in the production and distribution chain. e) Given GST is levied on a wide range of goods and services, and that the total burden of this tax on a particular commodity depends upon its final value (but not on the number of production and distribution channels through which it passes), GST minimizes economic distortions. GST also does not cause cascading/pyramiding. 15 f) As consumption, the base of GST, is less affected by economic cycles, GST provides a more stable source of revenue than many other taxes. GST was therefore developed to shift the burden of tax from direct tax to indirect tax, to make Singapore's economy internally competitive and to develop a broad-based and more stable source of tax revenue. GST as a Part of a Tax Reform Package It was decided to introduce GST as a part of an overall tax reform package. As the Finance Minister announced in his 1993 Budget statement: "The GST will be introduced with a generous package of offsets, comprising corporate and personal income tax reductions, rebates and subsidies which, taken together, will exceed the GST collected in the first few years of its implementation. We will ensure that as far as possible, no household should be worse-off when the GST is implemented." 16 To this end, several reforms were brought about in Singapore's tax system, together with the introduction of the GST. These changes are outlined below: Corporate income tax It was intended to bring down the rate of corporate tax from 30% to 25% over the medium term. To this end, the corporate income tax rate was reduced from 30% to 27% in 1994. Individual income tax In 1994, personal relief for individual income tax was increased from S$ 2000 to S$ 3000, and the top rate of individual income tax was reduced from 33% to 30%, with proportionate reductions in other tax brackets. The reductions ranged from 7.14% for the income 7 bracket between S$ 25,001 and S$ 30,000 to 28.57% for the income bracket ranging between S$ 1 and S$ 5,000. Further, a rebate on individual income tax was granted in the following manner: Annual value of property annual rebate* up to S$ 5000 S$ 150 S$ 5001-6000 S$ 125 S$ 6001-7000 S$ 100 S$ 7001-8000 S$ 75 S$ 8001-9000 S$ 50 S$ 9001-9999 S$ 25 S$ 10,000 and above -* or the actual amount of the yearly tax, whichever is lower. Commodity tax relief Import duties and excise taxes were suspended on several items such as natural gas, propane, lubricating oil, aviation fuel, jet fuel, and white fuel, and import duties and excise taxes on high speed diesel and motor fuel were reduced in order to offset the effect of GST. Similarly, the 5% tax on domestic PUB (public utility tax on electricity, gas, and drinking water) bills of more than S$ 40 was reduced to 2%, and the restaurant and hotel surcharge was reduced from 4% to 1%. The 5% tax on domestic telephone charges and the 5% entertainment duty were suspended. The cinematography film hire duty was also discontinued. Grants Public assistance grants for the low-income elderly and medically disabled, widows, deserted wives with dependent children, and orphans were increased by 3% to 5%, in order to help these groups offset the cost of GST. Similarly, higher subsidies were given in order to offset the higher cost of health and education services under GST. The "Edusave" grant was increased from S$. 50 to S$. 100 per child per month. The monthly allowance for pensioners 9 was increased from S$ 100 to S$ 130. Similarly, rebates on service and conservancy charges for one to five rooms HDB and rental for one and two room HDB flats were granted. These allowances were designed especially to help lower income groups. GST was introduced as part of an overall tax reform package that intended to reduce the reliance on income taxes in order to maintain the competitiveness of Singapore's economy, to attract new business and to encourage savings, investment, and long-term growth. The GST generated goodwill in society by reducing unpopular and inefficient taxes. Post-GST Tax Changes The government continued its tax reform process even after the introduction of GST. Changes intended to further reduce the burden of direct taxes were introduced in order to maintain the competitiveness of Singapore's economy. Important tax changes brought about in the post-GST era included: Corporate income tax The rate of corporate income tax was reduced from 27% to 26%, effective from the start of the 1997 Assessment Year. Individual income tax The highest rate of individual income tax was reduced from 30% to 28% in 1996. Other rates have been reduced accordingly. Property tax The government decided to bring down the rate of property tax from 16% to 12% over a 4 to 5 year period. To this end, the property tax rate was reduced from 16% to 15% (effective July 1, 1994), and from 15% to 13% (effective July 1, 1995). The property tax was reduced further to 12% (effective July 1, 1996). 10 Estate duty The estate duty was revised in 1996. The first S$ 3 million of all residential property and the first S$ 500,000 of all other property were exempt from the estate duty in 1995. In 1996, these figures were raised to S$ 9 million and S$ 600,000, respectively. Estate duty was levied with a rate of 5% up to the first S$ 10 million and 10% above S$ 10 million in 1995. In 1996, a 5% duty was levied on property valued up to S$ 12 million, and the duty on all other property was readjusted to 10%. Commodity taxes In 1995, the import duty on cigarettes containing tobacco and tobacco substitutes was abolished, and the excise duties on these items were raised. Other changes Similarly, a number of other changes have been brought about in the tax system since the tax reform package was developed in 1993. Some of these changes are general, while others are targeted to a particular sector. For example, an across-the-board one-off rebate of 5% on individual income tax was granted in the 1993 Assessment Year. This figure increased to 10% for the 1995 and 1996 Assessment Year. A 25% rebate on property tax was granted for commercial and industrial properties for the year beginning July 1993. The government also has been granting rebates on HDB service and conservancy charges and rentals. Section III: GST System Introduction Although the idea of introducing a GST in Singapore originated in the mid-1960s, it was considered seriously only in the early 1990s. At that time, the idea was to phase in GST gradually. Unlike many other countries, Singapore did not have any experience with a general sales tax, and it was thought to be more pragmatic to introduce GST in three phases over a period of five years. 11 It was finally decided, instead, in early 1993 to introduce a broad-based GST beginning on April 1, 1994, because the transition to a phased-in GST could take a long time and might invite lobbying for special treatment of various groups. A phased implementation would also be more costly. It was deliberately decided to introduce GST at a time when the economy was strong, the budgetary position was favorable, and the government did not need additional money. This allowed government to introduce GST at a very low rate and develop a GST offset package to minimize the political impact of GST. GST System On February 9, 1993, the White Paper on GST was issued jointly by the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Trade and Industry. It was intended to provide information on the nature, rationale, impact, structure and operation of GST. In this paper, the government indicated its intention to pass the GST Act before the introduction of GST on April 1, 1994. During this time, the committee received 70 recommendations from different groups. 19 The Select Committee considered these submissions and incorporated many into the GST bill. "The Bill was amended to provide for group registration, remove the tax on rezoning of land, nullify the reverse charge on imported services, extend the scope of zero-rating for international services, allow input tax attributable to overseas supplies to be claimed, and extend 12 the bonded warehouse scheme to all imported goods. In addition, it also recommended that the requirements for claiming bad debt relief be relaxed, cash accounting be allowed for small businesses and the conditions to qualify for the major exporter's scheme be clarified. The financial sector received an unexpected bonus in the form of a special formula which allowed input tax for financial services provided to other taxable persons to be claimed." 20 Singapore developed GST subsidiary legislation in the form of regulations and orders. The GST Regulations included general regulations, regulations relating to transitional provisions, board of review and composition of offenses. Similarly, various orders including the international services order, the import relief order, and the application of legislation relating to customs and excise duties order were developed. The GST law outlines a broad-based consumption type VAT, using the tax credit method extending through the retail level. The tax is based on the destination principle (i.e., imports are taxed, and exports are relieved from tax through the zero-rating mechanism). The coverage of GST is very wide, exempting only a few goods and services, such as the sale and lease of residential land and building and certain financial services. The broad base of the GST simplifies the tax system. Singapore did not intend to generate large amounts of revenue from GST immediately, but to instead develop GST as a future source of revenue. The major focus, in the first few years, was to give people time to get adjusted to the tax. GST was levied at a low rate of 3% (one of the lowest GST rates in the world 21 ) and the government gave assurance that it would not raise the rate for 5 years. The broad base made it possible to generate an acceptable amount of revenue, despite the low rate. In order to avoid putting undue compliance costs on small vendors, (with S$ 1 million turnover or less) who generally do not maintain good records, a decision was made to keep them out of the GST net. 13 Special Schemes While Singapore has adopted a conventional VAT similar to that implemented in about 110 countries around the world, it has injected some special features into the GST system to make it uniquely Singaporean. Although Singapore does not have any natural resources, its strategic location positions it well as a major center for business. The country has the second largest cargo-handling port in the world and is on one of the world's busiest commercial routes. The re-exporting of goods plays an important role in Singapore's economy. Traders use the country as a regional distribution hub. Singapore has become a major tourist destination. Singapore is a major financial center as well. It has more than 100 commercial banks, most of which are foreign. The headquarters of the Asian Dollar Market is in Singapore. Financial services have become very important for Singapore's economy. As discussed in the following section, the major export scheme (MES) and bonded warehouse scheme (BWS) were designed to relieve the imports of the qualifying exporters from GST. A tourist refund scheme was adopted so tourist sales would not be adversely affected. Since Singapore is a leading financial center, a lenient approach was taken towards the financial sector. Special schemes relating to exports Re-exporting plays an important role in Singapore's economy. Imported goods are reexported after manufacturing, processing or packaging. Singapore has taken care to relieve the exports from the burden of taxation. The method of removing the burden of VAT from exports used most often worldwide is to apply a zero rate to exports. However, traders still face cash flow problems under this system, as they have to pay tax first on inputs they can claim as a refund later when they export. Since exporters cannot charge GST on exports like they can on domestic sales, they cannot take 14 advantage of the input tax credit (which reduces the cost of financing the input tax). The zerorating also increases compliance costs of the traders, as they have to pay an input tax first and reclaim it later, maintaining books and records. Singapore has adopted a different approach from most countries to deal with this problem by implementing the MES and BWS under the GST system. a) Major exporter scheme MES is designed to relieve the imports of the qualifying exporters from GST. Under this scheme, registered qualifying exporters can import goods without paying GST at the customs point. This relieves exporters from the requirement of paying tax at import and claiming it back at export. In the absence of such a mechanism, major exporters would have to suffer a cash flow disadvantage, paying the input tax on imports and then claiming them in their GST returns. The government does not lose any revenue under the MES, since the tax paid on the inputs of the exports is going to be refunded to the exporters anyway. The tax is levied only on the domestic supply of the MES traders, so that the payment of GST is deferred until the submission of return by the registered exporters in the case of domestic supply. A trader must meet the following requirements in order to avail himself of this option: • must be a GST registered trader; • the value of export must be substantial, or constitute 51% or more of the total value of his supplies during the last financial year or any 12 continuous calendar months, otherwise the exporter must provide the comptroller of GST with a banker's guarantee for the amount of GST to be deferred in an accounting period; • a satisfactory accounting and internal control system is required; and • a good track record as a taxpayer in relation to GST, income tax, property tax and other taxes is also necessary. b) Bonded warehouse scheme Some imported goods change hands several times before they are re-exported. They are moved from one warehouse to another for the purpose of re-packing, including mixing, sorting, and grading before they are re-exported. Such activities take place especially in the case of such goods as coffee, pepper, rubber, crude oil, petroleum products and base metals such as copper, nickel, aluminum, lead, zinc and tin. Importers of these goods can use BWS. Non-resident traders who use Singapore as a distribution hub can also use this scheme. Under the BWS scheme, GST is suspended on imported goods that enter Singapore and are stored in the bonded warehouses. The tax is not levied on goods that are removed from the bonded warehouses for re-export or transferred from one bonded warehouse to another. In-bond sale is not considered for GST, which is levied on goods only when they leave a bonded warehouse for the domestic market. BWS is suitable for the overseas principals who import goods to Singapore for reexport (80% or more) and who do not have local distributors or agents, and for certain other importers. A commodity trader or service warehouse operator may apply to the Comptroller of Customs to operate a BWS. He has to submit a site plan and lay-out of the proposed designated areas. Upon approval of his application, he will be given a unique license number that must be quoted on all official warehousing documents and correspondence to IRAS in relation to this business. A BWS operator must furnish a 16 banker's guarantee of between S$ 1,000 and S$ 1,000,000 to cover GST payable on his import held at any point of time. He has to take permits electronically through Trade Net 22 for the import, re-export, removal from one bonded warehouse to another bonded warehouse and removal of goods for the local market. In the case of the release of goods for the local market, he must pay GST by GIRO through Trade Net. He has to maintain the records of lot numbers provided to each consignment. He has to submit monthly returns on the movement of goods, a discrepancy report, an audit report and certified annual financial statements. The number of BWS operators was 82 in 1994/95 and 1995/96. In 1995, a total of 2,395,449 permits was issued through Trade Net. The bonded warehouse is required to maintain tight inventory control. c) Tourist refund scheme Initially, it was thought that a tourist refund system would be unnecessary in view of the very low GST rate of 3%. A tourist refund scheme, however, was developed after hearing feedback from the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board and the Singapore Retailers' Association. Under this scheme, tourists who spend S$ 500 or more in one shop or within a retail chain could claim a GST refund. GST registered retailers can operate the tourist refund scheme. They must display their Tax Refund Logo in order to enable a tourist to apply for a refund. They have to maintain separate accounts of sales made under the tourist refund scheme, and they must keep copies of invoices or receipts issued in connection with such sales. It is necessary to complete the refund claim form in triplicate, and it must be signed by the seller and by the customers. The seller must keep one copy and return the other two copies together with the original invoices or receipts and a self-addressed envelope with postage prepaid to the customers. Tourists who wish to claim a GST Refund have to present the items at the GST Refund Counter located outside the baggage check-in at the airport for verification before 17 checking-in. With respect to high-value, small items which can be hand-carried, Customs may require the tourist to present these items for verification and endorsement at the GST Refund Counter located beyond the immigration checkpoint. Otherwise, the tourist can easily pass on these small high-value items to another person for local consumption free of GST. The practice of endorsing high-value small items at the counter beyond immigration checkpoint is therefore to minimize possible revenue leakage. Goods must be brought out of Singapore through Changi International Airport within two months of the date of purchase. The customer must bring the completed claims form with the goods to the GST Tourist Refund Inspection Office. After checking, the customs officer will endorse the claims form and return both copies to the customer. The customer has to seal a certified copy in the envelope given by the seller and drop it in the mailbox next to the Inspection Office. The customer may keep the other copy. On receipt of the certified claims form, the seller must refund to the customer the amount mentioned in the form via a check in the mail or through his credit card account. The seller must keep the claim forms certified by the customs office as proof that the goods have been brought out of Singapore. The seller may then offset the GST refunded to the customers (together with the input tax) against the output tax. If the total of GST refunded to the customers and input tax is more than the amount of GST collected in that accounting period, the seller can claim a refund for the difference from the Comptroller of GST. To date, the tourist refund scheme has been implemented by retailers. They can deduct a part of the GST levied on tourist sales as administrative expenses, but they have to explain everything to their customers at the time of sale and in the refund claims form. As it is a service charge related to exports, GST is not levied on these charges. The Asia Tax Free Shopping (ATFS) has been operating a tourist refund scheme since April 28, 1997. Under the new system, the minimum amount spent to qualify for 18 GST refunds is S$ 300 rather then S$ 500. Under this system, tourists pay tax on their purchases and claim it back from the ATFS at the airport in the case of purchases made from an ATFS-registered shop. Under the new system, tourists can get their money returned immediately at the airport, without needing to wait up to three months as they did under the retailer-operated tourist refund scheme. 24 ATFS then claims a refund from the IRAS. ATFS charges a fee of 15% of the GST amount paid by the tourists. Banking and financial services a) Banks and finance companies Singapore levies GST on fee-based services for safe deposit boxes, bank advice, subscriptions for credit cards, and the premium against general insurance. It is easy to find out the charge for services provided by banks and other financial institutions. The operation of any current deposit or savings account, foreign exchange, or transaction, the provision of any loan, advance, or credit, the issuance and sale of shares and life insurance, are exempted from the GST. This is because it is not easy to identify the charge for services by financial institutions in the case of such activities. For example, interest "includes elements which reflect the risk of the loan, the real cost of capital, the inflation rate, and a charge for the service rendered. In principle, only the last should be taxed, but in practice it is impossible to separate out this taxable component of interest from the rest." 25 Under the conventional VAT system, taxpayers are not allowed to take an input tax credit in the case of tax exempt supplies. For example, banks are not allowed to take an input tax credit in the case of purchases made in relation to the provision of a loan, which is an exempt supply. Such a provision may lead to an increase in the rate of interest charged by a bank on its lending and lead to tax cascading, since the tax paid by the bank on its purchases (including rent, office equipment, furniture, construction, stationery, electricity, lawyers' services and so on) is likely to be passed on to the customers in the form of higher interest rates. This increases the cost of production. 19 Since Singapore has a well developed financial market, and since it does not want to have taxation negatively affect its banking and financial activities, banks and finance companies are allowed to claim a credit on input tax for exempt supplies made to GSTregistered businesses. If implemented, however, it would invite administrative complications, since it would be necessary for banks and finance companies to keep records of GST-registered customers and GST non-registered customers, as well as overseas customers, since they can lend money to overseas as well as domestic customers and the domestic customers can be GST-registered or unregistered (small vendors or individuals). As lending to international customers is considered an export of services, it is zero-rated, hence it is treated as a taxable service. As a rule, banks or finance companies are allowed to take an input tax credit in these cases. Banks and finance companies are also allowed to take an input tax credit for loans (exempt supplies) made to domestic customers who are registered for GST. It would, however, be very difficult for the individual financial institution to keep track of the supplies made to GSTregistered customers without a major revamping of its computer system. To avoid this problem, pre-determined input tax recovery rates have been fixed, so that bank and finance companies have a method to allow them to claim an input tax credit. These rates are fixed on the basis of the industry's statistics. Banks and finance companies are required to submit their financial statements to the Monetary Authority of Singapore. This organization publishes annual statistics relating to deposits, lending to various types of customers, etc. On the basis of these statistics, input tax recovery rates are determined. These rates are fixed for banks and finance companies for one year as follows: 20 This means that full banks were allowed in 1994 to take 80% of the total tax paid on their purchase/imports in the form of an input tax credit. Such a system of fixed input tax recovery rates has been easy from an administrative point of view, since the banks and finance companies do not have to distinguish between domestic and foreign customers and those who are and are not registered for the GST. Taxpayers generally approve of this system. It avoids disputes between the banks/finance companies and IRAS regarding the input tax credit. IRAS does not have to examine the books and accounts of the taxpayers in detail, reducing the time and money to be expended by both parties and avoiding tax cascading. Banks and finance companies collect output tax on their taxable supplies. As their taxable supply is generally a small part of their total supply, they collect much less tax on their output than they pay on their inputs. Therefore, they are generally in a position to claim a refund. b) Insurance companies Of all the insurance services, only life insurance is exempt and does not invite the tax cascading problem. General insurance (such as fire, theft, property, cargo, marine etc.) is taxable. General insurance companies are required to register for GST and collect 3% GST on the amount of premium they charge. Insurance companies usually enter into re-21 insurance in order to minimize their risk. For example, they may bear 60% of the risk and pass on the other 40% of the risk to reinsurance companies. As re-insurance is conducted between companies only (not directly with the consumer), re-insurance services are exempt from GST. This avoids administrative complications without revenue loss. For example, the government will get a revenue of S$ 3 on an insurance premium of S$ 100 from an insurance company in a situation in which the insurance company passes its 40% risk to a GST exempt-reinsurance company. But if the re-insurance company is taxed, the re-insurance company will charge S$ 40 as a premium and S$ 1.20 as GST from the insurance company, remitting S$ 1.20 to the treasury. The insurance company will charge S$ 100 as a premium and S$ 3 as GST to its customer. It will deduct its input tax of S$ 1.20 from the output tax of S$ 3 and deposit the balance of S$ 1.80 to the treasury. Thus the government will get a revenue of S$ 3 in either case. However, exemption of reinsurance relieves re-insurance companies from the requirements of collecting tax from the insurance companies and remitting it to the treasury. Reinsurance companies, however, are still required to register for GST in order to get input tax credit they can claim on the basis of the fixed input tax recovery rates. Some insurance companies may deal with both direct insurance and re-insurance. Since they maintain separate records for direct insurance and re-insurance, they collect GST on the premium of direct insurance, as in the case of other direct insurance companies. General re-insurance companies and life re-insurance companies are allowed to take input tax credits at the following rates: c) Credit card companies A credit card company is required to charge GST on subscription fees charged to the credit card holders but not on the commission charged from the business. This is because the commission (merchant discount, as it is usually called) is regarded as a payment for a financial service and is specifically listed as an exempt supply in the GST legislation. For example, if a credit card company charges S$ 50 a year as the subscription fee from the credit card holder, it has to collect a GST of S$ 1.50 (3% of the subscription fee) from the credit card holder. Let us assume that a person goes to a shop to buy articles worth S$ 100. The shop issues a receipt of S$ 103 ( S$ 100 for the price of the goods and S$ 3 for GST) to the credit card holder. The person uses a credit card to pay the bill. The shop gets money from the credit card company, and the credit card company gets money from the credit card holder. The credit card company gets S$ 103 from the credit card holder. It, however, does not pay the full amount to the shop. It pays only S$ 98 (S$ 95 +S$ 3) to the shop and retains, for example, S$ 5 as its commission. GST is not levied on the S$ 5, the merchant discount, which is classified as an exempt financial service under the Fourth Schedule of the GST Act. d) Leasing companies When a lessee and a lessor enter into a contract for renting capital goods, the lessee gets the right of using the capital goods, which is a supply of services, but not the supply of goods (as the ownership of the goods does not change). The tax is levied only on the rent. However, according to the Second Schedule of the GST Act, eventual transfer of the possession of goods, either through a "rent to own" plan or through a third party financial agency, is a supply of goods. The tax treatment in such a situation is different from a situation in which the goods are only rented. For example, suppose Mr. A wants to buy a machine worth S$ 10,000 from company B. Since Mr. A does not have the money to buy the machine, he goes to leasing company C to make the necessary financial arrangements. Mr. A and C will enter into a financial lease arrangement. Under the 23 financial lease, the machine will belong to C. C will not give money to Mr. A, but rather to B. For GST purposes, B sells to C and C sells to Mr. A. B charges S$ 10,000 plus S$ 300 from C, and C charges S$ 10,000 plus S$ 300 from A. B remits S$ 300 to the Treasury. Since C has paid S$ 300 as an input tax and collected S$ 300 as an output tax, his GST liability is unaffected. If Mr. A is also a GST registered vendor, he can claim S$ 300 as an input tax credit. In the financing aspect of the lease, Mr. A has to pay interest to C. This interest is exempt from GST. For this service the stock brokers normally levy a service charge of 1% of the value of the sale. GST is levied on these service charges. The stock brokerage companies may have standard-rated supply (i.e. service charges), zero-rated supply (such as the sale of shares to an international buyer), and exempt supply (such as the sale of shares to local buyers). These companies are allowed to take a full input tax credit in the case of standard-rated supply and zero-rated supply and 50% in the case of exempt supply. The rationale behind the 50% input tax credit in the case of exempt supply is that the seller does not know to whom he is selling if the sale of the shares is done through a stock broking company. His buyer may be a GST-registered vendor, a non-GST registered vendor, or an overseas buyer. So 50% is considered a sale to the GST-registered vendor and/or an overseas buyer. The percent of total input tax allowed as a credit is calculated on the basis of the following formula: 24 SRS + ZRS + half of the ES through sale of shares = itc percentage Total supply Note: SRS = Standard Rated Supply ZRS= Zero Rated Supply ES= Exempt Supply itc percentage = percent of total input tax allowed as a credit. Let us suppose that the standard-rated supply is S$ 80, the zero-rated supply is S$ 50 and the exempt supply is S$ 70. In such a situation, on the basis of the abovementioned formula, the stock broking company can claim 82.50% of its total input tax. If its total input tax is S$ 10, it will receive an input tax credit of S$ 8.25. Transitional Measures It is necessary to develop several transitional provisions when a GST replaces other commodity taxes, including a general sales tax. For example, it becomes necessary to have transitional provisions relating to sales tax paid on stock at the time of the introduction of GST in order to avoid and/or minimize double taxation. Since GST did not replace a general sales tax in Singapore, there was not much need to think of transitional provisions. It was, however, still necessary to make transitional provisions in a few areas, such as in the supply of goods and services made under a long term contract completed before the introduction of GST. Under the transitional provisions, the supply of goods and services under non-reviewable contracts entered into on or before April 7, 1993 was zero-rated for a maximum period of five years from April 1, 1994. The supply was zero-rated until the first review date under a reviewable contract entered into on or before April 7, 1993. In the case of a contract entered into between 25 Section IV: GST Preparation and Implementation Administration Although the idea of a GST originated in Singapore in the mid- General's Chamber. The terms of reference for the GST Steering Committee were as follows: • to identify and resolve operational problems • to highlight the Ministry of Finance's major concerns regarding the business community • to prepare the business community for compliance • to oversee the public education program. A GST Division was created in the IRAS, and about 25 experienced people were transferred from other units of IRAS to the GST division. They were given two weeks of training. It was, however, not possible to manage GST with this limited number of people. So IRAS decided to recruit new officials. A further 170 officials were recruited for GST in 1993/94. They were trained on different aspects of GST. As customs officials have to collect GST on imports, they were also trained on GST. Some officials visited Taiwan, Korea, New Zealand, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom to study the VAT systems that were being implemented in Although the IRAS had developed a computer system for income tax and other tax purposes, it had to design and develop a new computer system for the GST in a short amount of time. The agency first developed critical modules for registration, return generation and processing, receipting, and tax accounting. The same taxpayer identification numbering system was used for the GST as for payers of income tax. It also designed a simple enforcement system. Other modules, such as one for auditing, were developed after the introduction of GST. Taxpayers Education Program Singapore launched an extensive taxpayer education program about the GST. IRAS' task was to prepare the business sector for the tax and to explain the rationale and effect of GST to the general public. Getting business ready IRAS made a great effort to get the GST message out to the businesses who were required to collect this tax for the government. IRAS organized numerous dialogue sessions, seminars, and classes on the GST and made several field visits to explain the working of GST to potential taxpayers. It prepared different types of brochures and pamphlets and distributed them on a wide scale. The intention of such a serious public discussion program was also to get feedback from the business sector in order to fine tune the GST regulations. IRAS wanted to be sure that the GST did not cause cash flow problems for businesses or increase their compliance costs unnecessarily. The IRAS organized about 40 seminars for the evenings, Saturday afternoons, and Sundays for people who could not attend the other meetings being held during normal office hours. c) Classes As not all businesses are members of trade associations, it was not possible to pass on the GST message through the seminars organized by the trade associations alone. IRAS organized 101 classes for those businesses (about 3,700 traders) that were not members of trade associations. d) Field visits IRAS staff also contacted retailers directly to explain the workings of GST, visiting 4,544 retailers. f) Advice Center IRAS also set up an advice center to assist people who visited the IRAS office. g) Direct mailers and registration packages IRAS sent GST materials to potential taxpayers together with income tax return forms and income tax assessment notices. h) Brochures The GST Division was organized in special teams to examine different aspects of specific industries and to fine-tune the GST bill and regulations. These special groups prepared 36 industry-specific brochures and pamphlets and distributed them widely. i) Media IRAS developed a video, which was broadcast on television. GST was widely covered by television, radio and newspapers. Educating the public IRAS launched an extensive publicity program for the general public. This program was aimed at explaining the rationale for introducing GST and raising the public awareness of the new tax. The agency organized talk programs with community centers, the Ministry of Community Development, the police, and the schools that, in turn, could talk to the public at large. The Ministry of Community Development worked at the grassroots level. Given local people might ask all kinds of questions of the police, IRAS officials gave talks on GST to the local police. IRAS taught police training officers, who in turn trained other policemen. As the police were located throughout the island, they could educate local people on GST and could help particularly if there were to be a dispute in the initial period of GST implementation between taxpayers and consumers. IRAS also educated teenage students attending junior colleges, who could convey this information to their parents. 29 An advertising company and consultancy firm were hired to assist the publicity committee. This company was awarded a contract of S$ 1.5 million to develop a program to clarify issues and answer questions, targeting businesses and consumers. Registration Began IRAS prepared a list of potential GST-payers from the income tax data base. In 1992/93, the number of income tax returns was 1,157,030. 26 Out of this, IRAS identified about 26,000 businesses whose annual turnover would be above S$ 1 million, meaning that about one-fifth of businesses would have to register for GST. IRAS also estimated that it would cover more than 90% of the total value added with this number of taxpayers. Registration for GST began on November 12, 1993. IRAS advertised in most of the major newspapers and sent letters to potential taxpayers informing them of registration. On November 15, 1993, they issued registration forms together with the following: • GST General Guide for Traders • Do I Need to Register? • How Do I Keep Records and Accounts? • How Do I Prepare My GST Return? IRAS sent its first direct reminders on December 18, 1994 to those who did not register. They also issued reminders in the press on January 10, 17 and 20, 1994. They sent a second direct reminder on January 28, 1994, and a third on March 3, 1994. At first, very few businesses registered. IRAS took a telephone survey of 316 businesses on February 24 and 25, 1994. The responses of this survey were as follows: 30 businesses who were not required to register, registered voluntarily. 27 More businesses came to register than had been originally estimated, and in subsequent years the number grew. GST-registrants had to display a registration certificate at their places of business. In addition, they were given GST logos. This logo was intended to assure consumers that only GST-registrants would collect GST. GST Went Live The infrastructure to collect GST was put in place by the end of March 1994. 28 GST personnel had been recruited and trained, the computer system was set up, and potential taxpayers educated. Some businesses were prepared to collect GST, while others were still confused about how the tax was to operate. In the early stages, the IRAS hot line was busy answering queries 29 and registering taxpayers. A GST Refund Booth was set up at the Changi Airport on April 1, 1994 to facilitate the tourist refund. 31 GST went live on April 1, 1994. IRAS made special preparations, setting up an operational command center at the International Plaza tax office. A number of experienced officers stationed at this center could go anywhere on immediate notice. The center's role was to monitor the events of the day and respond to any problems that arose. Similarly, 30 mobile teams were set up to handle problems that they encountered and report complicated cases to the command center. More than 1,300 telephone calls about GST were handled by specially trained officials on that day. 30 Customs collected more than S$ 2 million in GST on the first day alone. 31 Import declarations were made electronically. 32 The first day was a success at the customs points as well. IRAS paid attention to every issue in order to make the implementation of GST smoother. April 1, 1994 was a public holiday in Singapore, on which banks were closed. Traders might have found a shortage of small coins and could have charged a higher price on that day. To avoid this, IRAS officials kept sufficient 1-cent coins on hand to supply the traders. Japan faced the problem of an insufficient number of small currency denominations in 1989, when it introduced a 3% consumption tax.