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...rooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1997). Differential language learning opportunities in economically disadvantaged households, in particular, may have lasting consequences for children’s language development (=-=Hart & Risley, 1995-=-; Hoff, 2003). In their study, Hart and Risley (1995) found that by the age of 3, children in families receiving welfare had vocabularies that were half as large as those of their more affluent peers,...

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...groups conclude that these programs improve children’s short-term cognitive and language development and long-term academic achievement and reduce special education placement and grade retention (see =-=Barnett, 1995-=-; Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Farran, 2000; Karoly et al., 1998; Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993; Vandell & Wolfe, 2000; Waldfogel, 2002). Consider the Carolina Abecedarian Project, which provided high-qu...

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...nitive and language development and long-term academic achievement and reduce special education placement and grade retention (see Barnett, 1995; Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Farran, 2000; Karoly et al., 1998; =-=Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993-=-; Vandell & Wolfe, 2000; Waldfogel, 2002). Consider the Carolina Abecedarian Project, which provided high-quality care for the first 5 years of children’s lives. The program operated full-time and ful...

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...cts were substantial, nearly one third of a standard deviation. In addition, by age 21 those in the Abecedarian program were more likely to have gone on to college than those in the comparison group (=-=Campbell, Ramey, Pungello, Sparling, & Miller-Johnson, 2002-=-). Conversely, it is not clear whether more typical early education programs provide benefits to children, particularly children from disadvantaged Magnuson et al. 122sat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on Ma...

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...ool participation as a factor contributing to the program’s large, positive, and long-lasting effects on children’s reading and math achievement and subsequent high school graduation (Reynolds, 1994; =-=Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann, 2001-=-). However, Reynolds (1994) argues that the key to the program’s success is the combination of early education and several years of follow-on services. Nevertheless, the bulk of the evidence suggests ...

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...or Economic Development, 2002). To equalize access to high-quality early education opportunities, there have been numerous calls to expand public support of preschool programs for 3- and 4-year-olds (=-=Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001-=-; Committee for Economic Development, 2002; Wolfe & Scrivner, 2003). During the 1990s, states and the federal government did expand funding for child care subsidies and preschool programs (Blank, Schu...

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...de for their children. Close to 40% of the associations between economic disadvantage and young children’s lower academic performance are explained by the lower quality of home learning environments (=-=Smith, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1997-=-). Differential language learning opportunities in economically disadvantaged households, in particular, may have lasting consequences for children’s language development (Hart & Risley, 1995; Hoff, 2...

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...v, 1997). Differential language learning opportunities in economically disadvantaged households, in particular, may have lasting consequences for children’s language development (Hart & Risley, 1995; =-=Hoff, 2003-=-). In their study, Hart and Risley (1995) found that by the age of 3, children in families receiving welfare had vocabularies that were half as large as those of their more affluent peers, and the dis...

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...tion and School Readiness 143sat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 10, 2016http://aerj.aera.netDownloaded fromseffects on school achievement is that participants subsequently attend poorquality schools (=-=Currie & Thomas, 2000-=-; Takanishi & DeLeon, 1994). There is also evidence that the gains from early education may be maintained longer when child and family follow-on programs are provided during the early school years (Re...

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...curriculum that emphasized children’s language development. Follow-up studies showed that children in the Abecedarian program outperformed a comparison group of children on IQ tests at ages 8 and 15 (=-=Campbell & Ramey, 1995-=-; Ramey et al., 1999). These effects were substantial, nearly one third of a standard deviation. In addition, by age 21 those in the Abecedarian program were more likely to have gone on to college tha...

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...rving preschool-aged children provided good or developmentally appropriate care, while 10% were rated as being of poor quality; positive child-caregiver interactions were observed in fewer than half (=-=Helburn, 1995-=-). Data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care suggest similarly low rates of positive childcaregiver interactions in center-based care (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002a, 2002b). Other...

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...s (Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber, 1993; Reynolds, 1989). Likewise, parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling also promotes children’s achievement (Izzo, Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999; =-=Meidel & Reynolds, 2003-=-). With children’s academic trajectories established in the early school years and demonstrating consistency over time (Entwisle & Alexander, 1993; Kowaleski-Jones & Duncan, 1999), programs that impro...

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...chers’ pay was also more likely to be commensurate with that of elementary school teachers (82% received public school teacher salaries) and considerably higher than that of other child care workers (=-=Blau, 2001-=-). Head Start Head Start is a federally funded early education program for children from low-income households and children with developmental delays or disabilities. In operation since 1965, Head Sta...

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...nd family child care) conducted by researchers from the Families and Work Institute showed that only one in 10 providers was rated as providing good care, while about a third offered inadequate care (=-=Galinsky, Howes, Kontos, & Shinn, 1994-=-). Prior Research on the Effectiveness of Early Education and Care The extent to which center-based child care programs provide developmentally appropriate educational learning opportunities is diffic...

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...or example, they may have fewer books at home, spend less time reading with their parents, and have less stimulating verbal interactions with their parents than children from middle-class households (=-=Linver, Brooks-Gunn, & Kohen, 2002-=-). Attending a preschool program that provides a cognitively stimulating environment and opportunities for interactions with a responsive caregiver may compensate for a less stimulating home environme...

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...vior contribute to their later school success (Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber, 1993; Reynolds, 1989). Likewise, parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling also promotes children’s achievement (=-=Izzo, Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999-=-; Meidel & Reynolds, 2003). With children’s academic trajectories established in the early school years and demonstrating consistency over time (Entwisle & Alexander, 1993; Kowaleski-Jones & Duncan, 1...

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...rly childhood care and education, and child abuse and neglect.sat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 10, 2016http://aerj.aera.netDownloaded fromsschool programs for school readiness remains very limited (=-=Gilliam & Zigler, 2001-=-). Although we know a great deal about the effects of model interventions, we know much less about the effects of the types of programs more typically provided to young children. Evidence is particula...

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...hat the distribution of quality of child care across household income is U-shaped, such that children from low-income and high-income households are the most likely to experience better quality care (=-=Phillips, Voran, Kisker, Howes, & Whitebrook, 1994-=-). Governmental subsidies and provision of free or low-cost care to families who are economically disadvantaged may increase their ability to secure high-quality care relative to families with slightl...

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...s and teacher education. Quality ranges across settings, but overall indicators of structural features of center-based care suggest that quality is probably just “mediocre” (Helburn & Bergmann, 2002; =-=Smolensky & Gootman, 2003-=-). A second, arguably better method is direct assessment by trained observers who rate the quality of the learning environment and child-caregiver interactions. Using these observational measures, stu...

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...for reading skills, which is not surprising given that math skills are typically less sensitive than reading skills to variations in family and care environments (Huttenlocher, Levine, & Vevea, 1998; =-=Jordan, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 1992-=-). The coefficient for center-based care on math skills in the fall of kindergarten was 4.21 in the model without covariates (Table 2, Model 1). Adding family and child demographic characteristics red...

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...s (Ewen, Blank, Hart, & Schulman, 2002). The federal government does not regulate these programs, and state regulations vary widely in terms of both stringency and enforcement (Adams & Rohacek, 2002; =-=Helburn & Bergmann, 2002-=-). As noted, one way to measure quality is through structural features of programs such as child-to-staff ratios and teacher education. Quality ranges across settings, but overall indicators of struct...

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...xperimental research designs. (An experimental evaluation is currently being conducted.) The research typically reveals small academic benefits from Head Start that fade out over time (Barnett, 1995; =-=Lee, Brooks-Gunn, & Schnur, 1988-=-; Inequality in Preschool Education and School Readiness 123sat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 10, 2016http://aerj.aera.netDownloaded fromsZigler & Styfco, 1994). However, selection bias is a major pr...

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...licly funded early education and care, assistance falls far short of need. In 1998, fewer than 15% of eligible families received federal child care subsidies, and a third of states had waiting lists (=-=Ewen, Blank, Hart, & Schulman, 2002-=-). The federal government does not regulate these programs, and state regulations vary widely in terms of both stringency and enforcement (Adams & Rohacek, 2002; Helburn & Bergmann, 2002). As noted, o...

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...association is somewhat smaller than for reading skills, which is not surprising given that math skills are typically less sensitive than reading skills to variations in family and care environments (=-=Huttenlocher, Levine, & Vevea, 1998-=-; Jordan, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 1992). The coefficient for center-based care on math skills in the fall of kindergarten was 4.21 in the model without covariates (Table 2, Model 1). Adding family and...

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...ement and reduce special education placement and grade retention (see Barnett, 1995; Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Farran, 2000; Karoly et al., 1998; Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993; Vandell & Wolfe, 2000; =-=Waldfogel, 2002-=-). Consider the Carolina Abecedarian Project, which provided high-quality care for the first 5 years of children’s lives. The program operated full-time and full-year, with exceptionally low child-to-...

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...d by more than academic skills (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Children’s motivation, orientation to learning, and behavior contribute to their later school success (Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber, 1993; =-=Reynolds, 1989-=-). Likewise, parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling also promotes children’s achievement (Izzo, Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999; Meidel & Reynolds, 2003). With children’s academic tra...

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...ng supplementary funding to Head Start programs (Schulman et al., 1999). In 2001, about 12% of children nationwide were enrolled in Head Start, representing slightly more than half of those eligible (=-=Currie & Neidell, 2003-=-). The vast majority of Head Start programs operate part-time and part-year, but efforts are being made, in coordination with other community services, to provide wrap-around (full-day) care to meet t...

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...less likely to be enrolled in educationally oriented care outside the home have led policymakers to fund early education and child care programs targeted toward these children (Adams & Rohacek, 2002; =-=Farran, 2000-=-). One recent response has been the creation of prekindergarten programs, early education programs funded by local school districts (Ripple, Gilliam, Chanana, & Zigler, 1999). Prekindergarten has emer...

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..., Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999; Meidel & Reynolds, 2003). With children’s academic trajectories established in the early school years and demonstrating consistency over time (Entwisle & Alexander, 1993; =-=Kowaleski-Jones & Duncan, 1999-=-), programs that improve young children’s behavior and orientation to learning or increase parent involvement may have long-lasting effects on children’s school outcomes (Ripple et al., 1999). Consequ...

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...indergarten initiatives, but fewer have made substantial per capita investments—Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Ohio, and Oklahoma (Education Week, 2002; Ripple et al., 1999; =-=Schulman, Blank, & Ewen, 1999-=-).1 Nationwide, approximately 14% of 4-year-olds are enrolled in school-based general education prekindergarten programs (Smith, Kleiner, Parsad, Farris, & Green, 2003). Magnuson et al. 118sat PENNSYL...

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...bsequent school success are determined by more than academic skills (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Children’s motivation, orientation to learning, and behavior contribute to their later school success (=-=Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber, 1993-=-; Reynolds, 1989). Likewise, parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling also promotes children’s achievement (Izzo, Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999; Meidel & Reynolds, 2003). With childre...

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...9). Such a comprehensive approach to service delivery may be key to promoting school readiness across multiple developmental domains for these children (Ripple et al., 1999; Takanishi & DeLeon, 1994; =-=Zigler & Styfco, 1994-=-). Funding of Head Start programs is contingent on meeting set federal performance guidelines. Each center undergoes an on-site review at least once every 3 years based on 24 program performance measu...

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...vironment and opportunities for interactions with a responsive caregiver may compensate for a less stimulating home environment (Bradley, Burchinal, & Casey, 2001; Caughy, DiPietro, & Strobino, 1994; =-=Hubbs-Tait et al., 2002-=-). Alternatively, children from families who are disadvantaged may be placed in high-quality care more often. Research shows that the distribution of quality of child care across household income is U...

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...ed children’s language development. Follow-up studies showed that children in the Abecedarian program outperformed a comparison group of children on IQ tests at ages 8 and 15 (Campbell & Ramey, 1995; =-=Ramey et al., 1999-=-). These effects were substantial, nearly one third of a standard deviation. In addition, by age 21 those in the Abecedarian program were more likely to have gone on to college than those in the compa...

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...amming (Ripple et al., 1999). Such a comprehensive approach to service delivery may be key to promoting school readiness across multiple developmental domains for these children (Ripple et al., 1999; =-=Takanishi & DeLeon, 1994-=-; Zigler & Styfco, 1994). Funding of Head Start programs is contingent on meeting set federal performance guidelines. Each center undergoes an on-site review at least once every 3 years based on 24 pr...

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...Burns, 2001; Committee for Economic Development, 2002; Wolfe & Scrivner, 2003). During the 1990s, states and the federal government did expand funding for child care subsidies and preschool programs (=-=Blank, Schulman, & Ewen, 1999-=-; Education Week, 2002). Yet, evidence on the impact of expanded preMagnuson et al. 116 KATHERINE A. MAGNUSON was a Postdoctoral Scholar at the Columbia University School of Social Work when she worke...

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...ttending a preschool program that provides a cognitively stimulating environment and opportunities for interactions with a responsive caregiver may compensate for a less stimulating home environment (=-=Bradley, Burchinal, & Casey, 2001-=-; Caughy, DiPietro, & Strobino, 1994; Hubbs-Tait et al., 2002). Alternatively, children from families who are disadvantaged may be placed in high-quality care more often. Research shows that the distr...

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... children for longer hours and providing wraparound (full-day) care. Typically, these programs are privately funded forprofit or nonprofit enterprises, and children’s participation is based on a fee (=-=Hinkle, 2000-=-). Center-based day care programs, in contrast to preschools, are typically available 9 to 10 hours a day, 5 days a week, and the facilities may serve children of all ages. Like preschools, these prog...

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...dren’s short-term cognitive and language development and long-term academic achievement and reduce special education placement and grade retention (see Barnett, 1995; Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Farran, 2000; =-=Karoly et al., 1998-=-; Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993; Vandell & Wolfe, 2000; Waldfogel, 2002). Consider the Carolina Abecedarian Project, which provided high-quality care for the first 5 years of children’s lives. ...

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...targeted toward these children (Adams & Rohacek, 2002; Farran, 2000). One recent response has been the creation of prekindergarten programs, early education programs funded by local school districts (=-=Ripple, Gilliam, Chanana, & Zigler, 1999-=-). Prekindergarten has emerged into an arena that already includes several types of early childhood education and care programs such as Head Start, preschools, nursery schools, and center-based day ca...

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...rovides a cognitively stimulating environment and opportunities for interactions with a responsive caregiver may compensate for a less stimulating home environment (Bradley, Burchinal, & Casey, 2001; =-=Caughy, DiPietro, & Strobino, 1994-=-; Hubbs-Tait et al., 2002). Alternatively, children from families who are disadvantaged may be placed in high-quality care more often. Research shows that the distribution of quality of child care acr...

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...ducation opportunities, there have been numerous calls to expand public support of preschool programs for 3- and 4-year-olds (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Committee for Economic Development, 2002; =-=Wolfe & Scrivner, 2003-=-). During the 1990s, states and the federal government did expand funding for child care subsidies and preschool programs (Blank, Schulman, & Ewen, 1999; Education Week, 2002). Yet, evidence on the im...

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...s of child, family, school, or neighborhood characteristics that determine children’s academic skills and are associated with children’s care arrangements leads to biased estimates of β2, β3, and β4 (=-=Duncan & Gibson, 2000-=-). What factors are associated with center-based child care and subsequent academic achievement? As Table 1 demonstrates, children who were in center-based care prior to kindergarten are generally mor...

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...points to preschool participation as a factor contributing to the program’s large, positive, and long-lasting effects on children’s reading and math achievement and subsequent high school graduation (=-=Reynolds, 1994-=-; Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann, 2001). However, Reynolds (1994) argues that the key to the program’s success is the combination of early education and several years of follow-on services. Never...

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...ating care at home and less likely to be enrolled in educationally oriented care outside the home have led policymakers to fund early education and child care programs targeted toward these children (=-=Adams & Rohacek, 2002-=-; Farran, 2000). One recent response has been the creation of prekindergarten programs, early education programs funded by local school districts (Ripple, Gilliam, Chanana, & Zigler, 1999). Prekinderg...

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... welfare but can also be transferred to CCDF programs. In 2002, total federal and state CCDF funding amounted to $6.8 billion, more than half of which was spent on center-based child care (Child Care =-=Bureau, 2003-=-). However, as with other types of publicly funded early education and care, assistance falls far short of need. In 1998, fewer than 15% of eligible families received federal child care subsidies, and...

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...t once every 3 years based on 24 program performance measures related to the multiple program components. Although about 85% of reviewed centers met the standards of adequate care in 2000 (Head Start =-=Bureau, 2002-=-), experts worry that low pay and low levels of provider education constrain program quality (Ripple et al., 1999; Zigler & Styfco, 1994). Preschools, Nursery Schools, and Day Care Centers The primary...

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...tal and physical health). For example, the Head Start program, which we found to have limited effects on math and reading skills, may be important for other domains, such as child health or behavior (=-=Zigler, 1998-=-; Zigler & Styfco, 1994), parenting (Magnuson & Waldfogel, in press), or parent involvement in children’s schooling (Ripple et al., 1999). Future research should also examine the extent to which the e...