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...nyone is trying to learn, feedback about their efforts has three elements—the desired goal, the evidence about their present position, a d some understanding of a way to close the gapbetween the two (=-=Sadler, 1989-=-). All three must to a degree be understood by anyone before they can take action to improve their learning. Such argument is consistent with more general ideas established by research into the way th...

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...d, from the information that teachers gather for formative purposes, they should, with selection and re-interpretation, be in a strong position to contribute to a fair summative report on each pupil (=-=Wiliam and Black, 1996-=-). However, there are clearly difficult problems for teachers in reconciling their formative with their summative roles, and it is also evident from several evaluation studies of teachers’ assessment ...

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...tion encompassing twenty-three projects in thirteen member countries of the OECD has arrived at exactly the same message in framing advice to the member countries about effective policies for change (=-=Black and Atkin 1996-=-). Such arguments lead us to propose a four-point scheme for development, as follows. 1. Learning from development Teachers will not take up attractive sounding ideas, albeit based on extensive resear...

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...all. One very recent study is entirely devoted to low attaining students and students with learning disabilities, and shows that frequent assessment feedback helps both groups enhance their learning (=-=Fuchs et al. 1997-=-). Any gains for such pupils could be particularly important, for any ‘tail’ of low educational achievement is clearly a portent of wasted talent. Furthermore, pupils who come to see themselves as una...

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...n to it. The clearest evidence of this is in the detailed account—written by one of its members—of the work of the Schools Examinations and Assessment Council between its foundation in 1988 and 1993 (=-=Daugherty, 1995-=-). During that time, teachers' assessments appeared as an explicit item on that Council’s agenda on only two occasions, each time because the government department (then the Department of Education an...

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...to inform subsequent work.” (OFSTED general report on secondary schools 1996, p.40. ) “Why is the extent and nature of formative assessment in science so impoverished?” (UK secondary science teachers—=-=Daws and Singh, 1996-=- UK ) “The criteria used were ‘virtually invalid by external standards’” (French primary teachers—Grisay, 1991 ) “ Indeed they pay lip service to it but consider that its practice is unrealistic in th...

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...rustration, and anger… This study suggests that assessment, as it occurs insschools, is far from a merely technical problem. Rather, it is deeplyssocial and personal.” (US secondary language teachers—=-=Johnston et al., 1995-=-s) All features in the educational system which actually obstruct the development of effective formative assessment should be examined to see how their negative effects can be reduced. The outstanding...

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...t is hardly surprising that numerous research studies of the implementation of the UK’s educational reforms have found that formative assessment is, as one put it, “seriously in need of development” (=-=Russell et al. 1995-=-). However, more recent research studies have found some improvement in formative practice in primary schools (Gipps et al. 1996), and over the past two years, the DfEE have allocated in-service (GEST...

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...ive assessment is, as one put it, “seriously in need of development” (Russell et al. 1995). However, more recent research studies have found some improvement in formative practice in primary schools (=-=Gipps et al. 1996-=-), and over the past two years, the DfEE have allocated in-service (GEST) funds to the specific purpose of developing teacher assessment at Key Stage Two, and this has made it possible for some LEAs B...

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...s since the 1988 Education Reform Act have had powerful effects on assessment. The statements of policy which preceded that Act, the recommendations of the TGAT (Task Group on Assessment and Testing, =-=DES 1988-=-) report, and all subsequent statements of government policy, have emphasised the importance of formative assessment by teachers. However, most of the available resources, and public and political att...

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... formative assessment in science so impoverished?” (UK secondary science teachers—Daws and Singh, 1996 UK ) “The criteria used were ‘virtually invalid by external standards’” (French primary teachers—=-=Grisay, 1991-=- ) “ Indeed they pay lip service to it but consider that its practice is unrealistic in the present educational context” (Canadian secondary teachers—Dassa, Vazquez-Abad and Ajar, 1993 ). The most imp...