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... who spontaneously play for extended periods of time. Recent analyses of inherent enjoyment in adults reveal an enjoyable state of "flow," in which individuals are completely immersed in an activity (=-=Csikszentmihalyi, 1990-=-). Similarly, analyses of reported "peak experiences" in sports reveal an enjoyable state of effortless mastery and execution of an activity (Ravizza, 1984). This state of diffused attention is almost...

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...performance while maintaining the high level of accuracy. Under these conditions subjects' performance improves monotonically as a function of the amount of practice according to the power law (J. R. =-=Anderson, 1982-=-; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). In the absence of adequate feedback, efficient learning is impossible and improvement only minimal even for highly motivated subjects. Hence mere repetition of an activit...

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...ations. The critical importance of a correct method or strategy has also been demonstrated in date calculation (Addis & O. A. Parsons, as described in Ericsson & Faivre, 1988), mental multiplication (=-=Chase & Ericsson, 1982-=-; Staszewski, 1988), absolute judgment of colors and pitches (for a review see Ericsson & Faivre, 1988), motor skills (Norman, 1976), and methods of work (R. H. Seashore, 1939). The inability of some ...

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...ccount specify the different environmental factors that could selectively promote and facilitate the achievement of such performance. In addition, recent research on expert performance and expertise (=-=Chi, Glaser, & Farr, 1988-=-; Ericsson & Smith, 199la) has shown that important characteristics of experts' superior performance are acquired through experience and that the effect of practice on performance is larger than earli...

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...which everyone agrees must have been acquired. Finally, memory performance for briefly presented stimuli relevant to a given domain differs as a function of the level of performance in those domains (=-=Chase & Simon, 1973-=-; for a review see Ericsson and Smith, 199 Ib), but does not generalize to scrambled versions of the same stimuli. Hence experts' superior memory performance must be mediated by knowledge about the do...

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...hould repeatedly perform the same or similar tasks. When these conditions are met, practice improves accuracy and speed of performance on cognitive, perceptual, and motor tasks (Fitts & Posner, 1967; =-=Gibson, 1969-=-; Welford, 1968). Tasks used in laboratory studies of learning that are designed to focus on the accuracy of performance clearly display the relevant cues and the relevant feedback. Studies focusing o...

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...thematics (Webb, 1975), and sports (French & Thomas, 1987). The organization and accessibility of knowledge has also been shown to distinguish individuals at different levels of expertise in physics (=-=Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982-=-), medicine (Feltovich, Johnson, Moller, & Swanson, 1984; P. E. Johnson et al., 1981), and social science (Voss, Greene, Post, & Penner, 1983). Unlike the rapid decay of acquired knowledge seen in lab...

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... fibers (Ericsson, 1990). Unlil quite recently researchers commonly believed thai percenlages of muscle fiber types and aerobic power "are more than 90% determined by heredity for males and females" (=-=Brown & Mahoney, 1984-=-, p. 609). Some researchers have therefore reasoned by analogy that basic general characteristics of the nervous system, such as speed of neural transmission and memory capacities, have a genelic orig...

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...ited duration of practice is the best evidence of the effort it requires. When individuals, especially children, start practicing in a given domain, the amount of practice is an hour or less per day (=-=Bloom, 1985-=-b). Similarly, laboratory studies of extended practice limit practice to about 1 hr for 3-5 days a week (e.g., Chase & Ericsson, 1982; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Seibel, 1963). A number of training s...

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...rmance. The subjects should repeatedly perform the same or similar tasks. When these conditions are met, practice improves accuracy and speed of performance on cognitive, perceptual, and motor tasks (=-=Fitts & Posner, 1967-=-; Gibson, 1969; Welford, 1968). Tasks used in laboratory studies of learning that are designed to focus on the accuracy of performance clearly display the relevant cues and the relevant feedback. Stud...

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...ucation and vocabulary are partialed out (Rice, Meyer, & Miller, 1988). The estimated amount of reading is also related to reading ability and, most interestingly, increases in reading ability (R. C. =-=Anderson, Wilson, & Fielding, 1988-=-). Research on physical fitness has a long tradition of measuring daily physical activity and exercise, and we have cited the study in which Fagard et al. (1991) assessed the influence of both genetic...

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...kill acquisition. Evidence from these studies suggests that performance during the initial, middle, and final phase of skill acquisition is correlated with different types of abilities in each phase (=-=Ackerman, 1988-=-), initial performance being correlated with general cognitive abilities and final performance with perceptual-motor abilities. This evidence is consistent with the current theories of skill acquisiti...

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...resentative samples, such as military recruits, shows that performance on a wide range of tasks improves monotonically as a function of many hours of practice. Current theories (J. R. Anderson, 1982; =-=Fitts, 1964-=-; Fitts & Posner, 1967) propose that initial performance is mediated by sequential processes, which with additional practice are transformed into a single direct (automatic) retrieval of the correct r...

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... 1955). Striking differences between eminent individuals (experts) and less accomplished individuals are found, not surprisingly, when their current performance in the field of expertise is compared (=-=Ericsson & Smith, 1991-=- b); experts are faster and more accurate than less accomplished individuals. However, experts' superior speed in their domain of expertise does not transfer to general tests of speed, such as simple ...

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... 1955). Striking differences between eminent individuals (experts) and less accomplished individuals are found, not surprisingly, when their current performance in the field of expertise is compared (=-=Ericsson & Smith, 1991-=- b); experts are faster and more accurate than less accomplished individuals. However, experts' superior speed in their domain of expertise does not transfer to general tests of speed, such as simple ...

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...l aspects of everyday life (Gelber, 1990). Research in social psychology on interpersonal expectation and self-fulfilling prophesies confirms these effects in the laboratory and in everyday settings (=-=Darley & Fazio, 1980-=-; Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978). The important influence of parents' expectations on their children's performance, interest, and selfjudgments of ability in a domain has been demonstrated for large random ...

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...presented digits improved dramatically. One subject who discovered how to use efficient retrieval structures increased his performance by over 1000%. Recent reviews of exceptional memory performance (=-=Ericsson, 1985-=-,1988) show that a small set of general methods underlie such performance. After being instructed to use adequate strategies, subjects have attained exceptional levels of memory performance after exte...

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...any systematic data on the amount of time elite chess players spend playing and studying chess. There are, however, some unique data available about improved competence in chess as a function of age (=-=Elo, 1978-=-). With the Elo Rating System, it is possible to assess the chess skills of young chess players with the same interval scale used for adults. By analyzing the development of chess skills in many indiv...

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...' cognitive processes. These studies revealed subjects' active search for methods to improve performance and found that changes in methods could often be related to clear improvements. Other studies (=-=Chase & Ericsson, 1981-=-; VanLehn, 1991) have also shown that subjects actively try out different methods and refine methods in response to errors and violated expectations. The critical importance of a correct method or str...

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... number of synapses in the cerebellar cortex were found for rats, but not for rats engaged in extensive physical exercise, which instead exhibited a greater density of blood vessels in the same area (=-=Black, Isaacs, Anderson, Alcantara, & Greenough, 1990-=-). Replications of the adaptive changes with animals under controlled conditions are likely to be the best obtainable evidence on generalizability given the problems of motivating random samples of hu...

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...tesls can predict performance immediately after Iraining with an average correlation of 0.3, bul Ihe correlation between performance after training and final performance on the job is only about 0.2 (=-=Ghiselli, 1966-=-). Reviews of subsequent research (Baird, 1985; Linn, 1982) have reported very similar correlation estimates. When corrections were made for the restriclion of range of these samples and for unreliabi...

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...on in an extended working memory that relies on storage in long-term memory. This acquired memory skill underlies experts' superior ability to plan and evaluate potential sequences of moves in chess (=-=Charness, 1981-=-, 1989), sequences of card exchanges in bridge (Charness, 1989), and alternative diagnoses in medicine (Patel & Groen, 1991). The most important implication of these acquired memory skills is that the...

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...ally no benefit from durations exceeding 4 hr per day and reduced benefits from practice exceeding 2 hr (Welford, 1968; Woodworth & Schlosberg, 1954). Many studies of the acquisition of typing skill (=-=Baddeley & Longman, 1978-=-; Dvorak et al.. 1936) and other perceptualmotor skills (Henshaw & Holman, 1930) indicate that the effective duration of deliberate practice may be closer to 1 hr per day. Pirolli and J. R. Anderson (...

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... attributed experts' superior memory to chunking in short-term memory. This account has been revised, and the exceptional memory of experts has been shown to reflect rapid storage in longterm memory (=-=Charness, 1976-=-; Frey & Adesman, 1976; Lane & Robertson, 1979). Building on Chase and Ericsson's (1982) skilled memory theory, Ericsson and Staszewski (1989) concluded that experts acquire memory skill enabling them...

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...t a small set of general methods underlie such performance. After being instructed to use adequate strategies, subjects have attained exceptional levels of memory performance after extended practice (=-=Baltes & Kliegl, 1992-=-; Kliegl, Smith, & Baltes, 1989; 1990). Early investigators of extended skill acquisition in typing (Book, 1925b; Dvorak et al., 1936) and other perceptual-motor skills (Kao, 1937) carefully monitored...

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...experienced Morse Code operators could be encouraged to dramatically increase their performance through deliberate efforts when further improvements were required for promotions and external rewards (=-=Bryan & Harter, 1897-=-). More generally, Thorndike (1921) observed that adults perform at a level far from their maximal level even for tasks they frequently carry out. For instance, adults tend to write more slowly and il...

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...n, along with more recent laboratory research on learning and skill acquisition, a number of conditions for optimal learning and improvement of performance have been uncovered (Bower & Hilgard, 1981; =-=Gagne, 1970-=-). The most cited condition concerns the subjects' motivation to attend to the task and exert effort to improve their performance. In addition, the design of the task should take into account the pree...

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...rts' superior memory to chunking in short-term memory. This account has been revised, and the exceptional memory of experts has been shown to reflect rapid storage in longterm memory (Charness, 1976; =-=Frey & Adesman, 1976-=-; Lane & Robertson, 1979). Building on Chase and Ericsson's (1982) skilled memory theory, Ericsson and Staszewski (1989) concluded that experts acquire memory skill enabling them to rapidly access rel...

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...r a brief period of retraining. A moderate level of acquired skill in typing (Baddeley & Longman, 1978; Hill, 1934,1957; Hill, Rejall, & Thorndike, 1913), language (Bahrick, 1984), and other domains (=-=Farr, 1987-=-) appears to decay slowly and can be rapidly reacquired. The demonstrations of retained skill without recent practice as well as of regaining a considerable level of skill with limited current practic...

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...e of muscle fibers in response to intense physical activity (Booth, 1989) and general mechanisms for influence of environmental factors on developmental outcomes are now being proposed and evaluated (=-=Gottlieb, 1992-=-). Many extreme physical characteristics in elite athletes are the result of the same adaptive processes that determine similar characteristics in the normal population, and the extreme differences in...

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... in several ways is related to playing the piano, namely typing. A recurrent finding has been that expert typists' speed advantage is most pronounced for rapidly alternating keystrokes between hands (=-=Gentner, 1988-=-; Salthouse, 1984; Shaffer, 1976), whereas the differences for repetitive movements of the same finger are normally the smallest. The skill advantage in our study was limited to those tasksTHE ROLE O...

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...sful performance outside the school environmenl (Ceci, 1990; Howe, 1990). The relaiion of IQ to exceptional performance is rather weak in many domains, including music (Shuter-Dyson, 1982) and chess (=-=Doll & Mayr, 1987-=-). For scientists, engineers, and medical doctors that complete the required educalion and training, the correlations between ability measures and occupational success are only around 0.2, accounting ...

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...xceptional levels of memory performance after extended practice (Baltes & Kliegl, 1992; Kliegl, Smith, & Baltes, 1989; 1990). Early investigators of extended skill acquisition in typing (Book, 1925b; =-=Dvorak et al., 1936-=-) and other perceptual-motor skills (Kao, 1937) carefully monitored improvements in performance and collected verbal reports on subjects' cognitive processes. These studies revealed subjects' active s...

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... and medical doctors that complete the required educalion and training, the correlations between ability measures and occupational success are only around 0.2, accounting for only 4% of the variance (=-=Baird, 1985-=-). More generally, prediction ofoccupational success from psychometric tests has not been very successful (Tyler, 1965). In a review of more than one hundred studies, Ghiselli (1966) found ihe average...

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... the Boston Marathon (Ericsson, 1990). The fastest rate of typing in the World Championship in typing increased from 82 words per minute in 1904 to 147 words per minute in 1923—an improvement of 80% (=-=Book, 1925-=-a). Even in music there is evidence for improved skill. When Tchaikovsky asked two of the greatest violinists of his day to play his violin concerto, they refused, deeming the score unplayable (Platt,...

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...g-term memory. This acquired memory skill underlies experts' superior ability to plan and evaluate potential sequences of moves in chess (Charness, 1981, 1989), sequences of card exchanges in bridge (=-=Charness, 1989-=-), and alternative diagnoses in medicine (Patel & Groen, 1991). The most important implication of these acquired memory skills is that they enable experts to circumvent the limited storage capacity of...

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...s on the keyboard. Monitoring of expert typists' eye fixations reveals that they look ahead in the text to be typed, and the extent to which they do so is strongly correlated with their typing speed (=-=Butsch, 1932-=-). Experimental manipulations of the number of characters that are displayed in advance (preview) show that a certain preview is necessary for maximal typing speed. Reduction of preview below that amo...

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...ease the level of practice. Too rapid increases in the intensity of practice lead to "overuse and overtraining," which occur frequently in sports (Hackney et al, 1990; Silva, 1990) and even in music (=-=Fry, 1986-=-; Newmark & Lederman, 1987). Bailey and Martin (1988) report many instances of successful 9- to 11-year-old children increasing their training to very high levels, only to experience motivational burn...

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...lt performers, however, are judged on their interpretation and ability to express emotions through music (Sloboda, 1991). The inability of many child prodigies in music to succeed as adult musicians (=-=Bamberger, 1986-=-; Barlow, 1952) is often attributed to difficulties making this transition—possibly resulting from inappropriate training and instruction during the early and middle phases of music training. To becom...

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...usand years of education, along with more recent laboratory research on learning and skill acquisition, a number of conditions for optimal learning and improvement of performance have been uncovered (=-=Bower & Hilgard, 1981-=-; Gagne, 1970). The most cited condition concerns the subjects' motivation to attend to the task and exert effort to improve their performance. In addition, the design of the task should take into acc...

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...o be almost completely determined by genetic factors in the normal population of adults. Considerable empirical work has shown, however, that these differences have only a moderate genetic component (=-=Bouchard, 1986-=-). In a recent study Fagard, Bielen, and Amery (1991) found reasonably high genetic components for maximal aerobic and anaerobic power even when differences in the amount of exercise and other life-st...

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...methods in response to errors and violated expectations. The critical importance of a correct method or strategy has also been demonstrated in date calculation (Addis & O. A. Parsons, as described in =-=Ericsson & Faivre, 1988-=-), mental multiplication (Chase & Ericsson, 1982; Staszewski, 1988), absolute judgment of colors and pitches (for a review see Ericsson & Faivre, 1988), motor skills (Norman, 1976), and methods of wor...

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...fferences in expert performance have been successfully related to tests measuring the amount of relevant knowledge and procedures in chess (Pfau & Murphy, 1988), mathematics (Webb, 1975), and sports (=-=French & Thomas, 1987-=-). The organization and accessibility of knowledge has also been shown to distinguish individuals at different levels of expertise in physics (Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982), medicine (Feltovich, Johnson,...

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... appears to be the most relevant as well as demand-392 K. ERICSSON, R. KRAMPE, AND C. TESCH-ROMER ing activity. Biographies report that famous scientists such as C. Darwin, (E Darwin, 1888), Pavlov (=-=Babkin, 1949-=-), Hans Selye (Selye, 1964), and Skinner (Skinner, 1983) adhered to a rigid daily schedule where the first major activity of each morning involved writing for a couple of hours. In a large questionnai...

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...egain the original performance after a brief period of retraining. A moderate level of acquired skill in typing (Baddeley & Longman, 1978; Hill, 1934,1957; Hill, Rejall, & Thorndike, 1913), language (=-=Bahrick, 1984-=-), and other domains (Farr, 1987) appears to decay slowly and can be rapidly reacquired. The demonstrations of retained skill without recent practice as well as of regaining a considerable level of sk...

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... the Boston Marathon (Ericsson, 1990). The fastest rate of typing in the World Championship in typing increased from 82 words per minute in 1904 to 147 words per minute in 1923—an improvement of 80% (=-=Book, 1925-=-a). Even in music there is evidence for improved skill. When Tchaikovsky asked two of the greatest violinists of his day to play his violin concerto, they refused, deeming the score unplayable (Platt,...

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...dence for the relation between performance and390 K. ERICSSON, R. KRAMPE, AND C. TESCH-ROMER amount of practice comes from recommended training schedules for different levels of competitive runners (=-=Glover & Schuder, 1988-=-). Championship competitors not only take more time practicing and cover longer running distances than advanced and basic competitors, but they spend proportionally more time on training directed at i...

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...r dislike for this type of isolated activity. Moderate heritabilities have been estimated for these differences (Plomin et al., 1990) and for self-reported interest in especially artistic activities (=-=Grotevant, Scarr, & Weinberg, 1977-=-). Although we are not aware of any controlled human studies relating activity levels and emotionality to deliberate practice and attained level of expert performance, the relation between productivit...

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... offal measured by skin folds. Endurance alhletes have a much higher aerobic abilily, larger hearls, more capillaries supplying blood lo muscles, and a higher percentage of slow-twilch muscle fibers (=-=Ericsson, 1990-=-). Unlil quite recently researchers commonly believed thai percenlages of muscle fiber types and aerobic power "are more than 90% determined by heredity for males and females" (Brown & Mahoney, 1984, ...

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...wever, are judged on their interpretation and ability to express emotions through music (Sloboda, 1991). The inability of many child prodigies in music to succeed as adult musicians (Bamberger, 1986; =-=Barlow, 1952-=-) is often attributed to difficulties making this transition—possibly resulting from inappropriate training and instruction during the early and middle phases of music training. To become outstanding ...

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...und to discriminate well among male athletes of different events at the Olympic games in Montreal, although the average height of all athletes did not differ from that of a control group of studenls (=-=Carter, Ross, Aubrey, Hebbelinck, & Borms, 1982-=-). Elite alhletes also differ in the size of their muscles, such as arm girth, and in the amount offal measured by skin folds. Endurance alhletes have a much higher aerobic abilily, larger hearls, mor...

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...ual activity comes from financially independent authors. While completing a novel famous authors tend to write only for 4 hr during the morning, leaving the rest of the day for rest and recuperation (=-=Cowley, 1959-=-; Plimpton, 1977). Hence successful authors, who can control their work habits and are motivated to optimize their productivity, limit their most important intellectual activity to a fixed daily amoun...

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...e of work. For example, highly experienced users of computer software applications are found to use a small set of commands, thus avoiding the learning of a larger set of more efficient commands (see =-=Ashworth, 1992-=-, for a review). Although work activities offer some opportunities for learning, they are far from optimal. In contrast, deliberate practice would allow for repeated experiences in which the individua...

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...ted several laboratory studies and a study of experienced typesetters by Aschaffenburg (1896), which showed gradual improvements of up to 25% as a result of continued testing. Kitson (as described in =-=Book & Norvell, 1922-=-) found that during a 20-week period, typesetters with around 10 years of experience gradually improved their job performance between 58% and 97% in response to a bonus system rewarding higher perform...

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...ns, eminent scientists are completely absorbed in their vocation so "as to seriously limit all other activity" (Roe, 1953, p. 49). The degree of commitment has been quantified in a couple of sources (=-=Bruner, 1983-=-; J. R. Hayes, 1981) to suggest that scientists must work 80 hr per week for an extended time to have a chance of reaching an international level in their field. Although our theoretical framework sup...

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...mited by available time; professional athletes spend their "free" time on recuperation and relaxing activities. Olympic athletes sleep for close to 8 hr and in addition take a half-hour nap each day (=-=Coleman, 1986-=-). Many elite runners take a nap between daily workouts (Glover & Schuder, 1988). The complete focus on a single domain by elite performers in music and sports is further evidence that their efforts t...

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... skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic have been explicitly taught in schools by teachers with assigned activities of, for example, copying of presented material, for more than 3 thousand years (=-=Eby & Arrowood, 1940-=-). We want to distinguish activities invented with the primary purpose of attaining and improving skills from other types of everyday activities, in which learning may be an indirect result. On the ba...

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...Scientists and authors consistently chose to use mornings for demanding writing, and athletes prefer afternoons for their most strenuous practice sessions. Research on the effects of the time of day (=-=Folkard & Monk, 1985-=-) shows that simple perceptualmotor performance is enhanced in the afternoon and early evening, whereas intellectually demanding activities are enhanced in the morning. Systematic studies confirm that...

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...irectly reflect genetic factors. Some successful musicians can recognize a musical note in isolation by its pitch (perfect pitch). Championship-level typists can tap their fingers faster than normal (=-=Book, 1924-=-; Keele & Hawkins, 1982). Although we claim that genetic factors have little direct impact on ultimate adult performance, a plausible role for hereditary factors is in the developmental history of an ...

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...f physical injury and chronic maladaptation will increase "runner's knee," shin splints, and Achilles tendonitis for athletes (Subotnick, 1977) and sores, tendonitis, and muscle spasms for musicians (=-=Caldron et al., 1986-=-). Inability to recover from the stress of training, which is viewed as necessary for improvement in sports, can lead to "staleness," "overtraining," and eventually "burnout." These states are charact...

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... intense physical activity extended over long periods of time. Detailed biochemical mechanisms mediating the transformation of the phenotype of muscle fibers in response to intense physical activity (=-=Booth, 1989-=-) and general mechanisms for influence of environmental factors on developmental outcomes are now being proposed and evaluated (Gottlieb, 1992). Many extreme physical characteristics in elite athletes...

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...rnational grand master status at the youngest recorded age, namely age 15. Bobby Fischer learned the rules of chess at age 6 and in the same year he started studying his first book of chess games (F. =-=Brady, 1973-=-). As a result of his mother's initiative, at age 7 Bobby got in touch with the president of the Brooklyn Chess Club, who tutored Bobby on a weekly schedule for several years and actively supported Bo...

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...d acquired skills. Because IQ reflects both environmental and genetic factors, recent research has challenged its interprelation and relation to successful performance outside the school environmenl (=-=Ceci, 1990-=-; Howe, 1990). The relaiion of IQ to exceptional performance is rather weak in many domains, including music (Shuter-Dyson, 1982) and chess (Doll & Mayr, 1987). For scientists, engineers, and medical ...

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...ractice purposefully to maintain the skill. No decrement in performance was reported after 6 months, and only a slight decrement was reported after 13 years (Costall, 1985). Finally, recent research (=-=Cohen & Baird, 1990-=-) provides evidence that normal children, especially before age 5, more easily recognize notes individually (absolute pitch) before they perceive notes as part of larger musical structures (relative p...

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...ittle effort and that he did not have to practice purposefully to maintain the skill. No decrement in performance was reported after 6 months, and only a slight decrement was reported after 13 years (=-=Costall, 1985-=-). Finally, recent research (Cohen & Baird, 1990) provides evidence that normal children, especially before age 5, more easily recognize notes individually (absolute pitch) before they perceive notes ...

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...MER flexibility of joints. Stress induced during extensive training at young ages appears necessary for dancers to gain the necessary "turn out" in the different positions of demi-plie at adult ages (=-=DiTullio et al., 1989-=-; A. Watkins, Woodhull-McNeal, Clarkson, & Ebbeling, 1989). Dancers apparently acquire flexibility through early training as shown by a longitudinal study (Klemp & Charlton, 1989). In a large group of...

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...onsequences for performance. On the one hand, efforts to demonstrate decline in performance, even after consecutive days of mental multiplication for 12 hr per day, have been remarkably unsuccessful (=-=Arai, 1912-=-; Huxtable, White, & McCartor, 1946). On the other hand, the subjective feelings of discomfort and aversion often become so strong that continuing these experiments beyond 4 days would seem very diffi...

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...F DELIBERATE PRACTICE 365 defined skill, such as typing, with relatively unselect groups of subjects, numerous efforts to predict the attained performance from pretraining aptitude tests have failed (=-=Clem, 1955-=-). Striking differences between eminent individuals (experts) and less accomplished individuals are found, not surprisingly, when their current performance in the field of expertise is compared (Erics...