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...tional neSQ[juion have been taken. Fisher (1990) idcnrillesgeneral descriprions basedon diplomatic experience, studies that draw on marhcmnricnl models and g~me rheory, and comparative C35e analyses of a systcmaric nature. Carnevale and Pruin (1992) ncre books of advice to negcriarors rhnr are largely prescriptive (e.g., Fisher & Dry, 1980, mathematical treatments of carion.l negoriarion that , are mainly descriptive (e.g.. Raiffa, 1982), and behavioral studies in both the field and laboratory [hat are descriptive yet yield prescriptions (hat can be useful to negotiators (e.g., Pruitt. 1981). Druckman (1997) provides tile broadest sweep of peespecrivcs dIal have been taken to understanding ne gotiation, seeing it as puv.le solving dirc-cted toward ffi.king optimal choices, as ~ hargaining game in which concessions are exchanged, as or ganizational management requiring consensus building both within and be tween panics, or as diplomatic politic_~ in which negotiation is OIlC strand of multifaceted international relations. Social and political psychologists have made contrjburions to both r1u dcscnprive and prescriptive trc;\(mcnts of negotiation. I An early and infiucnnal model by Sawyer and "G...

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...e sitmrions iuvol ... ing multiple issues into inrcgradve Outcomes, Pmin identifies expanding the pie, non spt:l:iflc eornpcnsauon, cosr cutting, alld bridgillg, wherein a new option isI I created to s:;llis!y underlying interests. Such curccmes are achievable if it is ! , / / \ \ possihle to inj(C[ suFficiclll flexibility imo the m:goriari<Jn procc~~ along with rhe essenrinl amount of firmness (Druckman & Mitchell, 1995). A common question in negotiation research is how dements of the negotiating situation (e.g., prcllcgot;.uion experience, constirucnr pressure] affect process and outcomes. Druckman (2001) adds the more challenging question of how the processes and outcomes nffect the lcng-rerm, postsc:r rlemeoc relations among the pJrtics, wl\ich h;\s ,ignificance for conRiet res olution. At the same time, we must also ask how orher methods in the domain of conflicr resolution call he directed toward achieving and imple mcming imegrmivc agreements that work to improve rclarious among: for mer adversaries and thus help to build a lasting peace., lrrrrr.. Mediation When ncgonarion is nonexistent or unsuccessful in situations of destructive and protracted conflict, a Common response is for a ...

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...facr(}[~, and rhe challenge of building consensus, 'Ill in comparison to bilateral ncgorimion. Effofls to understand the complexity of multiparty, mulriissue negotiations seeking unanimity of agrecmellt must go beyond rhe common concepts applied ro bilateral ncgutialivl\s (bnga(t\ ing, informarion processing] to include additional concepts (coalition for mation, role diflcrcnriarion) in the context of a system perspective. Treat ments of muleilarcra! ncgoriarion, ir is hoped. will enable us to understand more deeply this increil~ingl}' common way of dealing with inrernarional issues (e.g., Hampson, 1995). I The sccoml distinction ha~ bent ccuual rc rhe ncgoriaeton literature for some time, stemming front the differences between domination, compro mise, and integration. identified by Mary Parker Follen (1924), with the latter approach secking tu find expression of all parties' interests without s:\erincing ',lny essential ones. The distinction was crystallized in die orga nizntinnnl literature through Walton and McKersic's (J 965) differellli:ltion of disn-ihut.ivc Yer.S\I~ ilHcgl,lLive bnrgaining, the former involving competing interests over rcsnurccs in short supply and the laucr eng:lgin...

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...gwn, this continuing workshop also provided the organizers' firsl experience with interactive problem solv ing as a paranegoeiaeion process. The political relevance of this work was enhanced by the appoinrrncnr, in 1991, of four of the six initial Palestinian participants in the group to key positions in the official negorialing teams and, in 1992, of several Israeli participants ro ambassadorial and cahiuet positions in the new Rabin government. Some participants left rhe group at this point because they saw a conflict of interests between [heir roles in the official and unofficial process (Kelman, 1998b, pp. 19-20). These workshops from the 1970s ro the early 1990s, along with other unofficial activities, helped ro lay the groundwork for the Oslo agreement of September 1993 (Kelman, 1995, 1997d). Such efforts contributed by developing cadres prepared to carry out productive negotiations; by sharing information and formulating new ideas rhat provided substantive inputs into the negotiations: and by fostering a political atmosphere rhar made clic parties open to a new relationship. After rhc Oslo agreemenr, Kelman and Rouhana initiated a new project: rhe [oim Working Group all Israeli-Palesti...

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...ment, and vulnerability-are pan of the people's consciousness and available for manipulation. The effeet of such collective moods is to hring to the fore powerful social norms that suPPOrt escalatory actions and inhibit moves toward compromise and accommodation. \'ifhen fundamental con cerns about survival and identity are rapped, national leaders, with fIlII expecration of public support, are far more ready to risk war than to rake risks for peace-in line with the proposition derived from prospect theory that people arc more reluctant to take risks to achieve gains than to avoid losses (sec Levy, 1992). An)' change in the established view of the enemy ," / \ and of the imperatives of national defense comes to be seen as a rhrem to (he nation's very existence. Public suppon is an csseminl resource for political leaders engaged In a conjuct relationship, both in ;lSsuring the public's readiness to accept rhe costs (h~r their policies mar email uud in enhancing the credibility of their rhrcars and promises [0 the other side. The prim;lry racaos of gaining public suppon is she lIlo/Ji/iuuioll ofgrOllp !oyl1/ti,'/. Aro1l5al of nationalist and P'" nioric sentiments, panicuiarly in a context of 1\...

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...1u((ltion, whereas power mediation goes beyond [hat to include manipulation. While this function can be seen as comp.uible with the world of power politics in which it operates. it does raise both ethical concerns over [he use of coercion by powerful third pnnies and strategic concerns about the garnering of agreements that involve SCt rlemenr !lUI do not result in la.~tillg resolution. til the past 20 years, the method of mediation has witnessed a signifi cant growth in theory, research, and practice at both [he domestic and international levels (e.g., Krcssel, Pruitt, & Associates, 1989). Moore (1996) provides a comprehensive coverage of rhe hisrory and expression of medi arion, which is found in almost all cultures ill the world, practiced by a variety of individuals and instinuions in both informal and formal roles. In Western societies, the last three decades have seen a profusion of mediator roles to address various rype.~ of conflict, often as an nlrcmacive ro formal, legal processes of litigation or adjudication. AI the international level, me diarion has a history ns long as that of diplomacy itself and has also received increased scholarly arrention in rccenr limes (e.g.. Bercovi...

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... ofinccrncnonal negoriarion. so thar a range of efforts can be directed reward achieving mutually acceptable scujernems Ill;).! contribute to susraiuabic and l'Hgdy cooperative relationships. There are [WO important disciccnous in coosidNing expression> of in ternational negotiation: hilarerai versus rnulriiateral and ccmpctirive versus integrative. The furmer distinction has gained importance since the end of the Cold War, with the shift away from" bipolar power snuggle to a Frcld \ uf multiple actors nrrcmpriug to forge u new world order. A concise treatmenr of multilateral negotiation by Touval (1989) covered the phases, im pediments. facrlitaring facr(}[~, and rhe challenge of building consensus, 'Ill in comparison to bilateral ncgorimion. Effofls to understand the complexity of multiparty, mulriissue negotiations seeking unanimity of agrecmellt must go beyond rhe common concepts applied ro bilateral ncgutialivl\s (bnga(t\ ing, informarion processing] to include additional concepts (coalition for mation, role diflcrcnriarion) in the context of a system perspective. Treat ments of muleilarcra! ncgoriarion, ir is hoped. will enable us to understand more deeply this increil~ingl}' common...