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...dia learning,sand metacognition. Comics Make Scientific Concepts and Principles More Concrete There is mounting evidence that even abstract knowledge may depend on perceptually basedsrepresentations (=-=Barsalou, 1999-=-; Glenberg & Kaschak, 2002). When bringing a concept tosmind or forming a mental representation of an object or scene, perceptual and motor knowledge becomes activated in the mind (Barsalou, 1999). Th...

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... white males withsthe category “ scientist.” Another potential consequence of personification is that children may be more likely tosuse their knowledge of humans to reason about biological entities (=-=Carey, 1985-=-; Hatano &sInagaki, 1997). Similar to schema-based inference, knowledge of humans provides a conceptual framework for learning about some new entity. For example, in The Curse of the Tree-man,spersoni...

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...d metacognition. Comics Make Scientific Concepts and Principles More Concrete There is mounting evidence that even abstract knowledge may depend on perceptually basedsrepresentations (Barsalou, 1999; =-=Glenberg & Kaschak, 2002-=-). When bringing a concept tosmind or forming a mental representation of an object or scene, perceptual and motor knowledge becomes activated in the mind (Barsalou, 1999). Thus, providing the learner ...

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...miliar to some readers than to others. If the reader hassto devote cognitive resources to decoding the meaning of these basic elements, then they willshave fewer resources to devote to comprehension (=-=Sweller, 1994-=-). Moreover, comprehensionsmay be lost if the conventions are misunderstood. For example, Japanese manga will notsmake sense if read from left to right since the panes are ordered from right to left. ...

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...estion is when, if ever, static images are superior for learning.sSeveral studies have found that learning outcomes from static images equal or exceed thosesfrom animations (e.g., Mayer et al., 1995; =-=Tversky, Bauer-Morrison, & Bétrancourt, 2002-=-).sIt is unclear at this point what distinguishes these studies from research that has found thesopposite result. Mayer et al. (1995) suggested that static images support the types of effortful proces...

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...as novices (Tversky, Heiser, Mackenzie, Lozano, &sMorrison, 2008). Comics may provide another effective way to visually model scientific phenomena. It is common for comics to express shifts in scale (=-=McCloud, 1993-=-), for example, byszooming in and out from frame to frame. Objects and events that are invisible to the nakedseye are thus illustrated, described, and explicitly related to objects and events at the s...

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...cs on people’s understanding of and reasoning about scientific phenomena.sScience learning involves several unique challenges, including the revision of potentiallyserroneous intuitive beliefs (e.g., =-=Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992-=-), thinking about invisible entitiess(Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007), and spatial thinking (Downs &sDeSouza, 2006).sAlthough some research suggests some positive effects on learning, the impac...

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...t, the conventional way in which comics integrate words and images may be especiallyspowerful for learning. Research by Mayer and colleagues (e.g., Mayer, 2003; Mayer, Steinhoff,sBower, & Mars, 1995; =-=Moreno & Mayer, 1999-=-) has found that embedding text in an image canslead to better understanding than when text and image are separated—the spatial contiguityseffect. The spatial contiguity effect is more pronounced when...

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...ated comics is backgroundsknowledge in the scientific domain. People with low prior knowledge may benefit moresfromsmaterials that depict or describe scientific entities and processes in full detail (=-=McNamara, Kintsch, Songer, & Kintsch, 1996-=-). Such comics could come with a cost, though.sCopyright © Springer Publishing Company, LLC 204 Jee and Anggoro The more closely a comic approximates a textbook, the less interested people may be insr...

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...lude an image along with labels and/or a caption. Yet, the conventional way in which comics integrate words and images may be especiallyspowerful for learning. Research by Mayer and colleagues (e.g., =-=Mayer, 2003-=-; Mayer, Steinhoff,sBower, & Mars, 1995; Moreno & Mayer, 1999) has found that embedding text in an image canslead to better understanding than when text and image are separated—the spatial contiguitys...

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...er does not know what to pay attention to (Mayer et al., 1995;sTversky et al., 2002). Static images can be compared side-by-side, which can guide attentionsto important commonalities and differences (=-=Gentner & Markman, 1994-=-). It is also relevantsthat comic book images are unlike those found in science textbooks and that comics containsa greater concentration of images than the typical materials used in educational resea...

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...te more time and cognitive resources to understanding a story. Also, encoding information by relating it to oneself (i.e., self-reference) hassbeen shown to produce stronger, more resilient memories (=-=Symons & Johnson, 1997-=-). Ifsthe characters are not relatable, however, motivation may be lost and self-reference may notsbe possible. Unrelatable characters may also reinforce negative stereotypes about science.3sTo appeal...

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... phenomena.sScience learning involves several unique challenges, including the revision of potentiallyserroneous intuitive beliefs (e.g., Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992), thinking about invisible entitiess(=-=Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007-=-), and spatial thinking (Downs &sDeSouza, 2006).sAlthough some research suggests some positive effects on learning, the impact of sciencescomics on these cognitive processes is presently unknown. What...

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... humor andsa variety of visualizations in these comics in an attempt to further engage students. At this point in time, empirical research lags far behind the expanding use of new mediasin education (=-=Dede, 2009-=-; Greenfield, 2009). Although several articles have discussed thespotential benefits of science comics, there have been few systematic studies demonstratingstheir effectiveness (Hosler & Boomer, 2011)...

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...sthe mapping between text and image components. Indeed, labels in scientific diagrams aresespecially helpful when placed in close proximity to the particular elements of the image thatsthey refer to (=-=Mayer et al., 1995-=-). Comics Invoke Schemas That Influence Comprehension Unlike typical teaching materials, comics have a narrative as opposed to an expository structure. As a reader attempts to comprehend a narrative, ...

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...cal and astronomical processes. Many developmental scientists havesarguedsthat children are unable to learn about objects that are invisible and cannot be physicallysmanipulated (Duschl et al., 2007; =-=Krajcik, McNeill, & Reiser, 2008-=-). However, some researchshas found that children can learn about these entities when the entities are visually modeledsand the relationship between the invisible and visible is made transparent (Stei...

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... is the influence of science comics on people’s beliefssabout their own learning. People’s ability to judge their own level of comprehension—smetacomprehension accuracy—is generally quite poor (e.g., =-=Maki, 1998-=-). Whereas studentssought to base such judgments on the content and coherence of their situation model, theysinstead rely on invalid cues such as familiarity with the topic, ease of processing the tex...

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..., are clearly directed at younger audiences with these factors in mind. The Informal Nature of Learning From Comics. Informal learning experiences often provide a foundation for more formal learning (=-=Bell, Lewenstein, Shouse, & Feder, 2009-=-; Greenfield, 2009). In everyday settings, learners do not rely on an authority figure to provide themswith new information and motivate them to learn. The learner is generally free to direct theirsen...

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...s.com) are also becoming widely used in thesclassroom. These single-panel cartoons (not a comic per se; see Note 1) may be an effective way tospresent students with scientific ideas and problems (see =-=Keogh & Naylor, 1999-=-). A series of comicsbooks called World of Viruses (www.worldofviruses.unl.edu) aims to spark children and teenagers’sinterest in the microbiological basis of viruses through a blend of fictional and ...

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...s in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM; Downss& DeSouza, 2006). Yet, children and adults vary in their ability to think spatially (e.g., Casey,sNuttall, Pezaris, & Benbow, 1995; =-=Estes, 1998-=-). It is of interest how individual differences insspatial thinking might contribute to science learning from comics. Higher spatial ability mayslead to greater learning from science comics; this appe...

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... variety of visualizations in these comics in an attempt to further engage students. At this point in time, empirical research lags far behind the expanding use of new mediasin education (Dede, 2009; =-=Greenfield, 2009-=-). Although several articles have discussed thespotential benefits of science comics, there have been few systematic studies demonstratingstheir effectiveness (Hosler & Boomer, 2011). Rota and Izquier...

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...o, 1994). The narrative structure of comics could make scientific material easier to comprehend.sThis is mainly because the content and structure of narratives is similar to our everydaysexperiences (=-=Graesser, León, & Otero, 2002-=-). For example, the comic Clan Apis (Hosler, 2000)sfollows the exploits of a honeybee named Nyuki as she learns about hive society from hersfriends and family. Schemas for similar types of events can ...

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...ial expression of verbal content, comics may help readers interpret words andssentences and notice important aspects of a story’s setting, tone, and other contextual properties (e.g., Crawford, 2004; =-=Frey & Fisher, 2004-=-; Schwarz, 2007; Williams, 2008). Althoughsliteracy education is an important goal, our primary interest in this article involves learningsof science. This educational goal may require comics that are...

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...eirsunderstanding, leading to a more coherent situation model (Graesser et al., 1994).sInfusingsscience lessons with narrative elements, such as anecdotes, can likewise benefit studentsunderstanding (=-=Martin & Brouwer, 1991-=-). One risk of schema-based inferences is that people may draw incorrect inferencessand misremember a story’s content. Bartlett’s (1932) seminal research on schemas foundsthat Westerners’ retellings o...

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... and raises the possibility that science-related comic books could reach andsinfluence a vast number of children. Indeed, several science-related comic books have beenscreated with this goal in mind (=-=Tatalovic, 2009-=-). Copyright © Springer Publishing Company, LLC Comic Cognition 197 The genre of comics for which science education is a primary goal—what we will refer to assscience comics2—is the primary focus of t...

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...ch judgments on the content and coherence of their situation model, theysinstead rely on invalid cues such as familiarity with the topic, ease of processing the text,sand even the length of the text (=-=Thiede, Griffin, Wiley, & Anderson, 2010-=-). This may leavesthe reader unaware of the topics that were poorly understood and that should be the focus ofsfuture study efforts. Copyright © Springer Publishing Company, LLC 202 Jee and Anggoro Al...

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...bal content, comics may help readers interpret words andssentences and notice important aspects of a story’s setting, tone, and other contextual properties (e.g., Crawford, 2004; Frey & Fisher, 2004; =-=Schwarz, 2007-=-; Williams, 2008). Althoughsliteracy education is an important goal, our primary interest in this article involves learningsof science. This educational goal may require comics that are specifically d...

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...mics is used (see Tatalovic, 2009, for further examples). In fact, somescomic books, such as Jay Hosler’s (2008) Optical Allusions, may provide an appealing alternative to standard science textbooks (=-=Hosler & Boomer, 2011-=-). There are also many educationallysrelevant graphic novels outside of the science realm. Several literary classics, including workssby Shakespeare and Edgar Allen Poe, have been translated into grap...

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...senting a pictorial expression of verbal content, comics may help readers interpret words andssentences and notice important aspects of a story’s setting, tone, and other contextual properties (e.g., =-=Crawford, 2004-=-; Frey & Fisher, 2004; Schwarz, 2007; Williams, 2008). Althoughsliteracy education is an important goal, our primary interest in this article involves learningsof science. This educational goal may re...

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... as she learns about hive society from hersfriends and family. Schemas for similar types of events can help the reader fill in gaps in theirsunderstanding, leading to a more coherent situation model (=-=Graesser et al., 1994-=-).sInfusingsscience lessons with narrative elements, such as anecdotes, can likewise benefit studentsunderstanding (Martin & Brouwer, 1991). One risk of schema-based inferences is that people may draw...

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...material easier to comprehend.sThis is mainly because the content and structure of narratives is similar to our everydaysexperiences (Graesser, León, & Otero, 2002). For example, the comic Clan Apis (=-=Hosler, 2000-=-)sfollows the exploits of a honeybee named Nyuki as she learns about hive society from hersfriends and family. Schemas for similar types of events can help the reader fill in gaps in theirsunderstandi...

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...rs alike. Even government agencies are using comics to communicate ideas. For example, White House advisor Jonathan Gruber recently announced plans toscreate a graphic novel about health care reform (=-=LeBlanc, 2011-=-). Comics take many forms (seesNote 1), and this flexibility underscores the great potential of comics for education.sAt present, the genre of science comics is rapidly expanding. It is now common to ...

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... learning “too easy,” and for taking away time from other more important activities. It is possible that some teachers’ attitudes have not changed much in the 60 or more yearsssince this study (e.g., =-=Millard & Marsh, 2001-=-). Yet, such attitudes are misplaced. Althoughssome comics may be used purely for entertainment, there are a number of comics that couldsenhance learning and interest in academic topics. Graphic novel...

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...mics altogether. For example, the comic authoring software Comic Life (www.plasq.com) was created to streamline the process of comic creationsby providing a menu of layouts, images, and text options (=-=Naylor & Keogh, 1999-=-). In hissbook, Manga High, Bitz (2009) discusses the many ways in which students in an urban highsschool benefitted from creating comics about personally relevant experiences in their lives.sIn parti...

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...entities are often represented as human-like characters in science comics. Forsexample, several comics in the World of Viruses series portray a virus as the protagonist.sIn The Curse of the Tree-man (=-=Powell, Floyd, Rubinstein, & Beachler, 2009-=-), a story aboutshuman papilloma virus (HPV) infection is told from the perspective of HPV, personifiedsby the character HPV Girl. One consequence of personification is that readers may bettersrelate ...

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...ation model (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). Constructing a situation model involves schematic knowledge structures, or schemas, that contain placeholders for new information andssupport inference making (=-=Schank & Abelson, 1977-=-). For example, a person may draw onsschematic knowledge to infer a character’s goals and motives, the cause of an event, and thespotential impact of an event on other characters (Graesser, Singer, &s...