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...ompetencies that cannot besdescribed as leadership or management based on Rost’s definitions.sResearch QuestionssResearch questions are used to shape survey research and focus the purpose of a studys(=-=Creswell, 2003-=-).sThis quantitative study was guided by the following three research questions.s1. What level of importance do college/university head athletic trainers place on theirsstaff athletic trainers demonst...

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...Likert scale responses is the potential forsresponse set, or the tendency for the participant to answer a large number of items with the samesresponse out of laziness or psychological predisposition (=-=Neuman, 2000-=-).sParticipants respondedsto each item via four-choice ordered Likert scale responses resulting in ordinal data.sOrdinalslevel data does not reflect the amount of agreement or disagreement or a standa...

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...ositions within the NATA or their workssetting must be prepared to contribute to the work of the organization.sWithin an organization orsgroup, leadership and power can come from a number of sources (=-=French & Raven, 1959-=-).sAthletic trainers who are not prepared to act both as leaders and active followers are limitingstheir contribution to their work settings and professional organization.sAthletic trainers assignedst...

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...ibes a high association (AcaStat, 2012).sThe threshold for statistical importance in this research was set at v ≥ .10.sIn correlational studies it is essential that the data used is in related pairs (=-=Pallant, 2010-=-).sAccording to Pallant (2010) the variables compared must be related to the same participant,stherefore a correlation cannot be determined if one of the variables is missing in the data set forsthe p...

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...e as essential traits possessed bysleaders.sThe abilities of the leaders placed them in a position of power from which they couldstranslate intention into reality through transactions with followers (=-=Bennis & Nanus, 1985-=-).sReynolds (1993) identified (a) the ability to communicate clearly, (b) needs recognition,s(c) analytical skills, (d) ethics, (e) organizational skills, (f) risk taking, and (g) an internationalsbac...

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...ganizations (Kouzes & Posner,s2007).sThe large body of research on traits of effective leaders created an extremely long recordsof desired traits ranging from physical characteristics to personality (=-=Northouse, 2007-=-).sNorthouse’s (2007) criticism of the trait approach to leadership study was focused on thesdifficulty of selecting any characteristics as definitive leadership traits.sThe qualities and skillssof in...

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... of feedback to motivate the respondent (Couper, 2008).sUsing closed questionsson the self-administered questionnaire allows for a decreased time of completion, resulting insincreased response rates (=-=Fowler, 1988-=-).sFinally, findings from previous research involving headsathletic trainers as participants suggested that web-based questionnaires are the preferredsinstrument for use with this group due to ease of...

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...iterature.sAthletic trainers are encouragedsto demonstrate effective communication skills which are also include in a number of identifiedslists of leadership traits and skills (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; =-=Hersey & Blanchard, 1993-=-; Reynolds,s1993).sReynolds (1993) identified ethics as important for business leadership; this concept issincluded in the Athletic Training Education Competencies as the category of ethical practices...

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... activities andsindividual goalss(Rost, 1991, p. 149)sOther leadership scholars have described leadership in similar ways.sLeadership shouldsnot be confused with status, power, or official authority (=-=Gardner, 1990-=-).sKouzes and Posner’ss(2007) discussion of leadership supported the contention that both leaders and followers mustsactively make a choice to become involved in the leadership relationship. “Leadersh...

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...sistant/associate athleticsdirector of athletic training.sLeadership. “Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers whosintend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes” (=-=Rost, 1991-=-, p. 102).sLeadership competencies.s“Leadership competencies for athletic trainers are the clustersof knowledge, skills, and abilities that an athletic trainer can use to influence and affect thesbeha...

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...erspective,sit helps to define the context and scope of a study (Boote & Beile, 2005).sEvidence fromsreviewed literature also creates a case for the necessity of studying the topic under examinations(=-=Hart, 1998-=-).sFinally, a summary of existing literature and a synthesis of completed findings,sincluding a critical examination of research methods, informed the research questions and designsstrategies for this...

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...as collected using a four-pointsLikert scale, resulting in ordinal level data (Neuman, 2000).sOrdinal measurement is possibleswhen differing degrees of an attribute, such as importance, are possible (=-=Glass & Stanley, 1970-=-).sThe use of ordinal level data allowed for a ranking of the level of importance for eachscharacteristic (Neuman, 2000).sFive of the demographic items on the questionnaire were used toscollect data a...

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...ined in this study.s16sChapter Two: Review of LiteraturesThis review of literature serves a number of purposes.sBy lending historical perspective,sit helps to define the context and scope of a study (=-=Boote & Beile, 2005-=-).sEvidence fromsreviewed literature also creates a case for the necessity of studying the topic under examinations(Hart, 1998).sFinally, a summary of existing literature and a synthesis of completed ...

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...Jokinen, 2004).s19sDispositions.sDuring the early and mid-twentieth century dispositions were viewed byspsychologists as innate temperamental factors present from birth and influenced by inheritances(=-=Allport, 1955-=-).sBoven (1931) described dispositions as innate temperamental factors.sAllports(1955) stated that dispositions were common tendencies among a species that allow for survival,sbring about characterist...

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...being (BOC,s2010).sThere has been a steady increase in the number of athletic trainers employed by collegessand universities since the early 1990s (D. Eason, personal communication, January 28, 2014;s=-=Hootman, Dick, & Agel, 2007-=-; NATA, 2013a).sAccording to NATA (2013a) membershipsstatistics indicate more athletic trainers work at colleges and universities than in any otherspractice setting.sReview of the demographic informat...

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...t relationshipssand utilized a non-experimental survey design.sSurvey design is appropriately used bysresearchers to collect information directly from people about their ideas, feelings, and beliefss(=-=Fink & Kosecoff, 1985-=-).sThe data sought in this study was the level of importance head athleticstrainers place on their staff athletic trainers displaying leadership competencies, therefore thessurvey method is an appropr...

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...que hassbeen criticized for a lack of validity and reliability and questions have been raised about the lacksof anonymity offered to the expert panel which is purposefully selected by the researchers(=-=Keeney, Hasson, & McKenna, 2001-=-).sWhile modifications, which may cause methodologicalschallenges, to the Delphi technique are common in allied health research, Kenney et al.s(2001)sfound that it is an acceptable method for use in t...

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...s set.sUsing the ≤.05 alpha level provides a balance between Type I and Type II errors.sAt the .05s59salpha level there is a 5% chance of rejecting a null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is trues(=-=Salkind, 1991-=-), which according to Neuman (2000) is an acceptable standard for social research.sThe perceived level of importance for each competency was collected using a four-pointsLikert scale, resulting in ord...

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...t (NATAEC, 2009).sSkills.sAbilities, proficiencies, facility or talents developed or acquired through training,spractice or experience are considered to be skills (American heritage dictionary, 2011;s=-=VandenBos, 2007-=-).sFor this study skills were included in the competency category of personalscharacteristics.sStaff athletic trainers.sWithin the college and university setting institutions often employsmore than on...

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...trainers to play an active role in the development and enforcement of ethically sound policies tosensure patient safety, and also to maintain relationships with formal leaders within theirsworkplace (=-=Kelley, 1988-=-; Pitney, 2006; Wolverton, 2013).sFollowers with appropriatesleadership skills are capable of disagreeing with those in formal leadership positions in defensesof their beliefs, and are less likely to ...

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...d athletic trainer.sTraits.sA trait is an enduring personality characteristic that describes or determinessbehavior across a range of situations (VandenBos, 2007).sTraits may be inherited or learneds(=-=Allport, 1960-=-).sFor the purposes of this study traits were included in the PersonalsCharacteristics competency category.sDelimitationssThis study was delimited to head athletic trainers employed at four-year insti...

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... skills including self-control and knowledge.sOf thesescharacteristics, honesty, forward-looking, competence, and inspiring ranked the highest as toolssleaders use to create an effective environment (=-=Kouzes & Posner, 2007-=-).sFive practices ofseffective leaders were identified by Kouzes and Posner.sThese practices were (a) modeling thesway, (b) inspiring a shared vision, (c) challenging the process, (d) enabling others ...

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...ion as are the possession of other skills and behaviors.sIn leadership literature it isscommon practice to use the terms traits and skills interchangeably and to avoid distinguishingsbetween the two (=-=Jokinen, 2004-=-).s19sDispositions.sDuring the early and mid-twentieth century dispositions were viewed byspsychologists as innate temperamental factors present from birth and influenced by inheritances(Allport, 1955...

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...indicate a moderate association, and values greater than .5 characterize high association.sAn assumption of the chi-square procedure is an expected count of no less than 2 in eachsarea of the matrix (=-=Glass & Hopkins, 1996-=-).sReview of the four category level of importancesresponse data in this study revealed that 64 of the 276 total response cells violated the minimums110sexpected count assumption.sThis represented 23....

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...ion.sAn emphasis on innate personalstraits characterized early models of leadership, but that idea soon branched out to include ansemphasis on behaviors and interpersonal skills possessed by leaders (=-=Fulmer, 1997-=-).sThe shiftsallowed for an environment in which leadership skills and behaviors can be taught and developedsrather than simply being present in some individuals and lacking in others.sDuring the twen...

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...ers’sAssociation Education Council [NATAEC], 2009).sDispositions.sA disposition is a tendency to respond to situations with a conscious andsvoluntary pattern of behavior directed toward a broad goal (=-=Katz, 1993-=-).sDispositions can besdeveloped through educational training (Katz, 1993; Platt, 2002).sIn this study dispositions weresincluded in the competency category personal characteristics.sClinical precepto...

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...ent used with aslarger respondent group. In the traditional Delphi method, survey results are reviewed by thesexpert panel and then shared with the respondents before a second survey is administereds(=-=Linstone & Turoff, 2002-=-).sKutz enlisted an expert panel of 18 athletic trainers with roles as asprogram director and involvement in the field of athletic training.sThe panel of expertssdeveloped a list of leadership compete...

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... theirsspecialty (Verma, Patterson, & Medves, 2006).sHealth profession education began experiencingssignificant reforms following the release of the 1998 PEW Health Commission workforcescompetencies (=-=Verma et al., 2006-=-).sVerma, Patterson, and Medves (2006) noted thatscompetency driven education was one of the important outcomes of the changes in educationalsreform.sWhile each specialty includes competencies tailore...

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... target sample size was selected to decrease the influence ofssampling error on the results of the study.sAt a given confidence level, the larger the samplessize, the smaller the confidence interval (=-=Raosoft, 2004-=-).sBased on a .30 expected return rate, thesadjusted sample size of 1001 helped to ensure an adequate final sample size to obtain thesconfidence interval of 95%.sThe design of this study as a cross-se...

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...at of other health care professions which showed benefits of leadershipsincluding better working environments, increased employee or student satisfaction, andsimproved patient outcomes (Hannam, 2000; =-=Laurent & Weidner, 2001-=-).sJustification provideds2sfor the study of leadership in athletic training most often emphasized that athletic trainers can usesleadership to advance the standing of the profession within the health...

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...-developer, vision and mission are still the property of those at the top of thesorganization, subordinates are simply groomed and encouraged to participate in carrying out thesplan laid before them (=-=Bradford & Cohen, 1984-=-).sSimilarly, Bennis and Nanus (1985) describedsleadership as a transaction between leaders and followers.sThe role of the leader was tosinfluence and guide followers using vision and judgment to crea...

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...om scholars in the field of athletic training that leadership issnecessary for the practice of athletic training and calls for greater involvement of athletic trainerss42sin the national association (=-=Hertel, West, Buckley, & Denegar, 2001-=-), there is no evidence of asconsistent definition of leadership in athletic training or a coordinated approach to conductsresearch on the topic.sMuch of the justification provided by researchers call...

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...ent and job description, but there are many similarities.sAthletic trainers insinstitutions associated with ATP work as preceptors, supervising athletic training studentssassisting with patient care (=-=Brumels & Beach, 2008-=-).sHead athletic trainers must balancesadministrative responsibilities with clinical patient care which, based on staff size and numbersand type of sports offered, may include travel with athletic tea...

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... as asmanner of behaving (Allport, 1937; Robins & Pervin, 2008).sTraits are the underlyings18sdeterminants that produce consistent reactions across a range of situations and over times(Allport, 1960; =-=John & Gosling, 2000-=-; VandenBos, 2007).sAccording to Allport (1937) traitssmust be general rather than specific and can be described in behavioral terms.sTraits aresexpressed with consistency across time and almost all s...

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...eb-based design wassselected due to its advantages over questionnaires delivered via mail or fax in cost ofsadministration and response rate with athletic trainers and similarly educated populationss(=-=Barrios, Villarroya, Borrego, & Olle, 2011-=-; Cobanglu, Warde, & Moreo, 2000; Laurent &sBradney, 2007).sThe introductory page of the questionnaire included an explanation of the study, benefitssof participation, and confidentiality safeguards.s...

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...s regarding athletic trainingsclinical instructors and leadership behaviors.sLeadership skills were included in a survey to determine the importance of hiring criteriasto athletic training employers (=-=Kahanov & Andrews, 2001-=-).sThe survey was a modification of aspreviously validated quantitative survey used with entry-level positions being filled in thesbusiness sector (Kahanov & Andrews, 2001).sLeadership skills were lis...

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...ld of business management contends that effectivesleaders and followers share many of the same characteristics, and that training in leadership andsfollowership can enhance the effectiveness of both (=-=Brown & Thornborrow, 1996-=-).sResearch has examined the leadership practices used by athletic trainers in the formalsleadership positions of ATP Program Director, Head Certified Athletic Trainer (Laurent &sBradney, 2007), and C...

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... tosenhance the practice of leadership skills (Laurent & Bradney, 2007).sTraits.sTraits have been defined as general directive tendencies that can be described as asmanner of behaving (Allport, 1937; =-=Robins & Pervin, 2008-=-).sTraits are the underlyings18sdeterminants that produce consistent reactions across a range of situations and over times(Allport, 1960; John & Gosling, 2000; VandenBos, 2007).sAccording to Allport (...

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...d to acquire and demonstrate their abilities in manysways, clearly defined competencies allow students to understand the expectations regarding thesknowledge, skills, and abilities they must acquire (=-=Stephenson et al., 2002-=-).sAthletic training program competencies.sThe 5th edition of the Athletic TrainingsEducation Competencies was published in 2011 and provides athletic training program personnelswith the knowledge, sk...

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...ust balancesadministrative responsibilities with clinical patient care which, based on staff size and numbersand type of sports offered, may include travel with athletic teams (Brumels & Beach, 2008;s=-=Winterstein, 1998-=-).sCompetition division and size of staff.sIntercollegiate athletics in four-year institutionssin the United States are primarily governed by the National Collegiate Athletic Associations(NCAA) or the...

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...ncies mustsbe exercised within a relationship as described by Rost (1991).sAn individual may innatelyspossess personal characteristics but they can also be developed through education and experiences(=-=Bennis, 2009-=-; Katz, 1993).sThe questionnaire used in this study utilizes the leadershipscompetencies identified through the research of Kutz (2006).sWhile Kutz labeled these itemssleadership competencies, there a...

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...as mirrored that of other health care professions which showed benefits of leadershipsincluding better working environments, increased employee or student satisfaction, andsimproved patient outcomes (=-=Hannam, 2000-=-; Laurent & Weidner, 2001).sJustification provideds2sfor the study of leadership in athletic training most often emphasized that athletic trainers can usesleadership to advance the standing of the pro...

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...ay an active role in the development and enforcement of ethically sound policies tosensure patient safety, and also to maintain relationships with formal leaders within theirsworkplace (Kelley, 1988; =-=Pitney, 2006-=-; Wolverton, 2013).sFollowers with appropriatesleadership skills are capable of disagreeing with those in formal leadership positions in defensesof their beliefs, and are less likely to be intimidated...

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...he standing of the profession within the health care community, adapt tosnew health care practice acts, and implement evidence based medicine practices (Barr &sDowding, 2008; Hunt, 2001; Kutz, 2004a; =-=Platt, 2000-=-).sIn addition to exploring the outcomes ofsleadership, researchers examined how athletic trainers in administrative roles display leadershipsbehaviors (Laurent & Bradney, 2007; Laurent & Weidner, 200...

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...niversity athletic trainers.sThe college and university setting representssthe largest employment category for athletic trainers (NATA, 2013a).sOver 99% of NCAAsinstitutions employ athletic trainers (=-=Acosta & Carpenter, 2012-=-).sAt the NAIA levelsapproximately 96% of colleges and universities employ one or more athletic trainers (NAIA,s2012).sIn 1995 2,654 athletic trainers reported employment in the college and university...

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...leadership competencies developed by Kutz (2006).sCompetencies.sA competency is a capability or ability comprised of a set of relatedsbehavioral responses driven by an underlying construct or intent (=-=Boyatzis, 2008-=-).sDye andsGarman (2006) defined competencies as a set of professional and personal skills, knowledge,svalues, and traits that guide a leader’s performance, behavior, interaction, and decisions.sThesi...

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...nts in a leadership relationship within an organization,sfollowers must accept responsibility for their own roles as well as the roles and actions of thoseswhom they can influence, including leaders (=-=Chaleff, 2009-=-).s5sBased on these definitions and responsibilities of participants in a leadership relationship,seven athletic trainers not assigned to formal leadership positions within the NATA or their workssett...

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...3;sNATA, 2012).sThese changes led to calls for leadership from athletic trainers to move thesprofession forward and to address the concerns of an increasingly diverse population of athleticstrainers (=-=Dieringer, 2011-=-; Grantham, 2013; NATA, 2009; Prentice, 2013).sIn response to the expanding opportunities and changes in athletic training during the paststwo decades, scholarly literature has touted the benefits of ...

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...of skills in the educational process (Katz,s1993).sDispositions can be learned in a professional education setting, and are most effectivelystransferred from instructors to students through modeling (=-=Dirks et al., 1998-=-; Katz, 1993).sIncluding dispositions in educational goals allows for opportunities to strengthen the dispositionssassociated with skills and increase the chance of a skill being used (Katz, 1993).sWa...

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...s of an understanding and practice ofsleadership by athletic trainers and shown that leadership behaviors exhibited by athletic trainerssare similar to those practice by leaders in other professions (=-=Gieck, 2010-=-; Kutz, 2004a; Laurents& Bradney, 2007; Platt, 2002).sMost often, the focus of literature on leadership in athleticstraining has mirrored that of other health care professions which showed benefits of...

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...etic trainers work, ansincreased scope of practice, major revisions to the educational preparation of athletic trainingsstudents, and the retirement of the first two generations of athletic trainers (=-=Grantham, 2013-=-;sNATA, 2012).sThese changes led to calls for leadership from athletic trainers to move thesprofession forward and to address the concerns of an increasingly diverse population of athleticstrainers (D...

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...esleadership to advance the standing of the profession within the health care community, adapt tosnew health care practice acts, and implement evidence based medicine practices (Barr &sDowding, 2008; =-=Hunt, 2001-=-; Kutz, 2004a; Platt, 2000).sIn addition to exploring the outcomes ofsleadership, researchers examined how athletic trainers in administrative roles display leadershipsbehaviors (Laurent & Bradney, 20...

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...iors (Laurent & Bradney, 2007; Laurent & Weidner, 2001).sWork also was undertaken tosdescribe the leadership content that should be included in the academic preparation of athleticstraining students (=-=Kutz, 2006-=-).sAlthough much time and effort has been directed toward encouraging leadershipsdevelopment in athletic training, major limitations remain.sExisting research on leadershipscompetencies important for ...

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...ing, 2008; Hunt, 2001; Kutz, 2004a; Platt, 2000).sIn addition to exploring the outcomes ofsleadership, researchers examined how athletic trainers in administrative roles display leadershipsbehaviors (=-=Laurent & Bradney, 2007-=-; Laurent & Weidner, 2001).sWork also was undertaken tosdescribe the leadership content that should be included in the academic preparation of athleticstraining students (Kutz, 2006).sAlthough much ti...

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...r leadership from athletic trainers to move thesprofession forward and to address the concerns of an increasingly diverse population of athleticstrainers (Dieringer, 2011; Grantham, 2013; NATA, 2009; =-=Prentice, 2013-=-).sIn response to the expanding opportunities and changes in athletic training during the paststwo decades, scholarly literature has touted the benefits of an understanding and practice ofsleadership ...