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...pproximation Figure 4: Piecewise linear approximation of battery empirical discharge pattern. • Constant current : The leakage experienced by a charged supercapacitor is modeled as a constant current =-=[15]-=-; • Exponential : The leakage experienced by a charged supercapacitor is modeled as an exponential function of the current supercapacitor voltage [30]: Pleak ≈ P0 exp(αV (t)), where V(t) is the voltag...

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...sibility of applying energy-scavenging techniques to networks of embedded systems has been assessed by many works, proposing and validating prototype implementations of devices powered by solar light =-=[28, 3]-=-, wind [24, 6], kinetic energy [22], thermal energy [29], RF energy [7], and so on. Such environmentallypowered systems have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged...

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...plying energy-scavenging techniques to networks of embedded systems has been assessed by many works, proposing and validating prototype implementations of devices powered by solar light [28, 3], wind =-=[24, 6]-=-, kinetic energy [22], thermal energy [29], RF energy [7], and so on. Such environmentallypowered systems have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged by the unpred...

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...d protocols. In an attempt to fill this gap, in this work we describe the design and implementation of GreenCastalia [12], an opensource energy-harvesting framework for the popular Castalia simulator =-=[2]-=-. Castalia has recently gained wide acceptance in the WSN research community, as it features one of the most advanced channel and radio model among existing WSN simulators [25]. Castalia also provides...

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...within each timeslot. The current implementation of GreenCastalia includes the widely used EWMA prediction algorithm [15] and two state-of-the-art predictors recently proposed in the literature, WCMA =-=[27]-=- and Pro-Energy [4]. EWMA maintains the history of the energy harvested on past days as an exponential moving average. Predictions are delivered based on the assumption that the energy available at a ...

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...sibility of applying energy-scavenging techniques to networks of embedded systems has been assessed by many works, proposing and validating prototype implementations of devices powered by solar light =-=[28, 3]-=-, wind [24, 6], kinetic energy [22], thermal energy [29], RF energy [7], and so on. Such environmentallypowered systems have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged...

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...ks of embedded systems has been assessed by many works, proposing and validating prototype implementations of devices powered by solar light [28, 3], wind [24, 6], kinetic energy [22], thermal energy =-=[29]-=-, RF energy [7], and so on. Such environmentallypowered systems have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged by the unpredictable nature of environmental energy sou...

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... have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged by the unpredictable nature of environmental energy sources, which requires dedicated solutions for energy management =-=[1]-=-. In fact, energyPermission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit ...

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.... The current implementation of GreenCastalia includes the widely used EWMA prediction algorithm [15] and two state-of-the-art predictors recently proposed in the literature, WCMA [27] and Pro-Energy =-=[4]-=-. EWMA maintains the history of the energy harvested on past days as an exponential moving average. Predictions are delivered based on the assumption that the energy available at a given time of the d...

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...d supercapacitor is modeled as a constant current [15]; • Exponential : The leakage experienced by a charged supercapacitor is modeled as an exponential function of the current supercapacitor voltage =-=[30]-=-: Pleak ≈ P0 exp(αV (t)), where V(t) is the voltage of the supercapacitor at time t and P0 and α depends on the particular supercapacitor considered; • Piecewise linear approximation: The leakage, lea...

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...plying energy-scavenging techniques to networks of embedded systems has been assessed by many works, proposing and validating prototype implementations of devices powered by solar light [28, 3], wind =-=[24, 6]-=-, kinetic energy [22], thermal energy [29], RF energy [7], and so on. Such environmentallypowered systems have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged by the unpred...

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...ughly test novel algorithms and schemes in a controlled and reproducible environment. Recognizing this need, many recent works have proposed dedicated harvesting-enabled frameworks and modeling tools =-=[17, 31, 13, 9]-=-. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of them is currently available to the wider research community, resulting in a lack of accessible simulation tools to support the early-phase design and t...

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... storage capabilities. Moreover, it supports multi-source harvesting architectures that are becoming increasingly popular to enhance the overall efficiency and reliability of energy-scavenging system =-=[32]-=-. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we survey related work on the area, focusing on simulation tools that support energy-harvesting systems. In Section 3 the general structur...

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...r considered; • Piecewise linear approximation: The leakage, leaki(t) experienced by the sensor node Ni at time t is modeled by using a piecewise linear approximation of the empirical leakage pattern =-=[35]-=-. More accurate models, such as those recently proposed in [14, 16], can be integrated in GreenCastalia by extending the Supercapacitor module and its corresponding class. 3.3 Energy manager The Energ...

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...ughly test novel algorithms and schemes in a controlled and reproducible environment. Recognizing this need, many recent works have proposed dedicated harvesting-enabled frameworks and modeling tools =-=[17, 31, 13, 9]-=-. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of them is currently available to the wider research community, resulting in a lack of accessible simulation tools to support the early-phase design and t...

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...ystems has been assessed by many works, proposing and validating prototype implementations of devices powered by solar light [28, 3], wind [24, 6], kinetic energy [22], thermal energy [29], RF energy =-=[7]-=-, and so on. Such environmentallypowered systems have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged by the unpredictable nature of environmental energy sources, which req...

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...ergyManager module, the specific controller for storage devices utilization and charging can be modified so as to simulate a variety of architectures, including hybrid and multi-stage storage systems =-=[18]-=-. During energy updates, self-discharge of storage devices is also taken into account. Whenever the node runs out of energy, the EnergyManager notifies other modules by sending an OUT_OF_ENERGY messag...

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...pular Castalia simulator [2]. Castalia has recently gained wide acceptance in the WSN research community, as it features one of the most advanced channel and radio model among existing WSN simulators =-=[25]-=-. Castalia also provides a highly flexible model of sensor devices that includes noise and bias, which can be used to define accurate models of physical processes. Despite many desirable features, the...

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...h a CTS to its RTS message. Once a relay is selected, the sender transmits its buffered packets in a burst, performing a back-to-back transmissions in which data packets are individually acknowledged =-=[26]-=-. Figure 5 shows an example of application of the proposed protocol in a network of heterogeneous wireless sensor nodes modeled in GreenCastalia. In the considered setup, 49 nodes are deployed in 7x7 ...

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... physical hardware and of the environment, and the integration of a structured architecture for embedded software. Unfortunately, WSNsim is not currently available to the wider research community. In =-=[34]-=-, Wu et al. propose an energy-aware extension of the ns3 network simulator that allows to model the energy consumption of wireless devices, as well as linear and non-linear energy storages. Their impl...

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...entation of GreenCastalia provides a generic TraceEnergySource module, which allows to feed the simulator with timestamped power traces collected through real-life deployments and measurement studies =-=[5, 11]-=-, or with energy availability traces obtained by data repositories [10] or meteorological stations [19]. The EnergySource module can also be extended to support user-defined models of different energy...

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...ughly test novel algorithms and schemes in a controlled and reproducible environment. Recognizing this need, many recent works have proposed dedicated harvesting-enabled frameworks and modeling tools =-=[17, 31, 13, 9]-=-. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of them is currently available to the wider research community, resulting in a lack of accessible simulation tools to support the early-phase design and t...

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...ughly test novel algorithms and schemes in a controlled and reproducible environment. Recognizing this need, many recent works have proposed dedicated harvesting-enabled frameworks and modeling tools =-=[17, 31, 13, 9]-=-. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of them is currently available to the wider research community, resulting in a lack of accessible simulation tools to support the early-phase design and t...

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... they may be too slow for effective design exploration of harvesting-aware network protocols. A first attempt to integrate an energyharvesting framework with Castalia is presented by De Mil et al. in =-=[8]-=-. Such an implementation, however, has several shortcomings and limited flexibility. For example, the harvested current is discretized into a limited number of possible values, and there is no support...

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...aki(t) experienced by the sensor node Ni at time t is modeled by using a piecewise linear approximation of the empirical leakage pattern [35]. More accurate models, such as those recently proposed in =-=[14, 16]-=-, can be integrated in GreenCastalia by extending the Supercapacitor module and its corresponding class. 3.3 Energy manager The EnergyManager module is the core of the energy subsystem, having a compl...

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...aki(t) experienced by the sensor node Ni at time t is modeled by using a piecewise linear approximation of the empirical leakage pattern [35]. More accurate models, such as those recently proposed in =-=[14, 16]-=-, can be integrated in GreenCastalia by extending the Supercapacitor module and its corresponding class. 3.3 Energy manager The EnergyManager module is the core of the energy subsystem, having a compl...

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... techniques to networks of embedded systems has been assessed by many works, proposing and validating prototype implementations of devices powered by solar light [28, 3], wind [24, 6], kinetic energy =-=[22]-=-, thermal energy [29], RF energy [7], and so on. Such environmentallypowered systems have the potential for unlimited lifetime, but this ambitious goal is challenged by the unpredictable nature of env...