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...ant, since a test’s power informs the experimenter about the probability of finding an effect if it does in fact exist given a particular sample size, alpha level, and desired population effect size (=-=Cohen, 1977-=-). Cohen (1977) suggests that .80 is adequate for most studies, but as power approaches .50 it approximates chance findings of 50%. Alpha (a measure of the probability that the population parameter ef...

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...ge 238; Hypotheses 1 and 2, page 228; and Hypothesis 4, page 236, respectively). These results identified six potential mediating effects of coping that met the first three requirements of mediation (=-=Baron and Kenny, 1986-=-), including auxiliary coping as a mediator between schedule demand and adjustment as well as adjustment’s component indices of psychological health, safety, and performance, and adaptive coping as a ...

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...Fit Index (RFI), Bollen’s (Bollen, 1989b) Incremental Fit Index (IFI), the Tucker-Lewis Coefficient, also known as the Bentler-Bonnett Non-normed Fit Index (NNFI), and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; =-=Bentler, 1990-=-). In the latter CFI, for example, the index measure the relative sufficiency of a model on a continuum of models ranging from the null model where variables are unrelated to a saturated model in whic...

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...t, particularly given the present study’s relatively large sample size, suggest that chi square is not the best measure of fit in the present context due to the large sample size (see Joreskog, 1969; =-=Bentler & Bonett, 1980-=-; Browne & Mels, 1992). For example, Joreskog (1969) noted some time ago that, “Such a hypothesis (of perfect fit) may be quite unrealistic in most empirical work with test data. If a sufficiently lar...

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..., and Katon, 1990). It also seems likely that locus of control (Andersen, 1977; Carver et al., 1989; 92Fleishman, 1984; Hockey, 1986; Parkes, 1984; Spector, 1982; Terry, 1991) and support resources (=-=Cohen and Wills, 1985-=-; Cohen and McKay, 1984; Dalbokova et al., 1995; House, Landis, and Umberson, 1988) are related to breadth of coping repertoire. Broadened Coping Taxonomy If breadth of coping repertoire is characteri...

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...pproach and avoidance, as well as a third category termed "auxiliary", conceptualized as neither necessarily approach nor avoidant in nature. Thus, working within the context of Carver's COPE Scales (=-=Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub, 1989-=-), a three-level classification system was conceived to include auxiliary coping (Lehrer, 1996) and applied in the present study (see Table 6, page 170 for sample items, as well as Results, page 184, ...

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...ooler, 1978; Schonfeld, 1990). Consequently, coping behavior conceptualized as efforts to attenuate or tolerate the demands created by a stressor is an important conceptualization in stress research (=-=Folkman and Lazarus, 1980-=-). A critical challenge, then, is to develop effective, efficient systems for assessing and attenuating stress in the workplace, and then educating organizations in applying these systems. Therefore t...

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...reby understanding vulnerabilities and illness better than adaptive strengths and health. Thus, psychologists are better prepared to treat disorder than to promote well-being and personal growth (see =-=Antonovsky, 1987-=-; Seeman, 1989). Interestingly, a key factor among postulated influences on mental and physical illness has been the concept of stress (Hobfol, 1986, 1988; Kaplan, 1983; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, Mil...

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...schedule beyond frank characteristics of the schedule itself. The rationale presented in the preceding paragraphs therefore provides the logical underpinnings for the present study’s biopsychosocial (=-=Engel, 1977-=-, 1980) approach; that is, to refrain from imposing a pre-conceived “stress rating” based solely on employee schedules absent worker preferences, predispositions and circumstances. Interestingly, ther...

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... to coping with shiftwork stress. STRESS MODERATORS Research on stress and coping has emphasized coping determinants involving stable, structural properties both of the person and of the environment (=-=Folkman and Lazarus, 1985-=-). Studies of coping, for example, have in the past focused largely on coping traits (e.g., Goldstein, 1973; Krohne and Rogner, 1982; Moos, 1974). Accordingly, a large body of research has investigate...

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...esources. Such factors include hardiness (Kobasa, 1982; Kobasa, Maddi, and Kahn, 1982), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982), learned resourcefulness (Rosenbaum and Ben-Ari, 1985), and a sense of coherence (=-=Antonovsky, 1979-=-, 1987). A calm, easygoing disposition, as opposed to one characterized by irritability and impatience, may also provide stress resistance (Rhodewalt, Hays, Chemers, and Wysocki, 1984; Suls, Gastorf, ...

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...be valued by the organization (Dekker and Barling, 1995). Perceived organizational support has also been shown to be positively related to attitudinal and behavioral measures of affective attachment (=-=Eisenberger, et al., 1990-=-). Still, little is known concerning the organizational factors that contribute towards perceived support (Dekker and Barling, 1995). Eisenberger et al. (1990) suggested that benefits provided by the ...

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...e Antonovsky, 1987; Seeman, 1989). Interestingly, a key factor among postulated influences on mental and physical illness has been the concept of stress (Hobfol, 1986, 1988; Kaplan, 1983; Lazarus and =-=Folkman, 1984-=-, Milgram, 1986). Walter Cannon (1932) adopted the term stress from the field of physics, espousing the view that humans are in some ways analogous to physical objects such as metals that resist moder...

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...nants of coping behavior have been conceptualized in different ways. Broadly, whereas some studies consider coping as a response to the characteristics of the particular stressor (Coyne et al., 1981; =-=Folkman et al., 1986-=-; Mattlin et al., 1990; McRae, 1984), other investigations have conceptualized coping as 52reflecting personal characteristics contributing to the utilization of consistent coping styles over time an...

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...on, 1990; Suls and Fletcher, 1985). Interestingly, since emotionally focused coping frequently involves self-blame and avoidant-oriented fantasy, it often correlates with higher levels of depression (=-=Endler and Parker, 1990-=-). Older adults who relied on ineffective escapism, such as avoidant, reckless, and helpless coping behaviors, experienced greater current and future emotional distress (Rohde, Lewinsohn, Tilson, and ...

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...er or not the statistical test has been able to 298detect that it is false.” Others engaged in applying structural equation modeling to stress and coping, adjustment, and performance research (e.g., =-=Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992-=-) have made similarly informed decisions to utilize other goodness-of-fit tests such as Bentler’s (1990) Comparative Fit Index (CFI), “…because the chi-square goodness-of-fit test is sensitive to even...

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...lity to reach career goals, interpersonal conflict, lack of supervisory feedback, and lack 7of control over decision-making (Taylor, 1990; LaCroix and Haynes, 1984, 1987; Rabkin and Struening, 1976; =-=Beehr and Newman, 1978-=-; Frew and Brunning, 1987; Karasek et al., 1981). Among Air Traffic Controllers (ATCs), for example, numerous studies have found that primary sources of work stress are associated with both operative ...

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...1985) and situation variables (Eilers and Nachreiner, 1990; Folkman et al., 1986; McRae, 1984)? These questions have yet to be adequately addressed in stress and coping research (Carver et al., 1993; =-=Carver and Scheier, 1994-=-; Folkman and Lazarus, 1985). Applying previous research, the question emerges as to whether there is an underlying pattern of adaptive coping stability (Carver and Scheier, 1994; Folkman and Lazarus,...

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...cting Auxiliary Coping. = .06) as compared to the low internal control group (M = .52, SD = .08), with an average difference between subgroups of approximately .87 SD, a large mean difference effect (=-=Cohen, 1988-=-). Thus for spouse/partner relationships that were reported as significantly problematic in terms of employee-perceived support, lower internal shiftwork locus of control yielded substantially less ut...

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...n to examine personal and environmental resources and adaptive coping 10strategies that can help individuals to effectively manage stressful circumstances and to remain healthy when stressors occur (=-=Coyne and Downey, 1991-=-; Kessler, Price, and Wortman, 1985). This transformation in perspective emerged in part due to several key observations linked to the results of earlier stress-illness research. For example, despite ...

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... 1986). Broadly classified, more or greater proportions of approach coping are associated with better psychological outcomes, and more or greater proportions of avoidance coping with poorer outcomes (=-=Compas, Malcarne, and Fondacaro, 1988-=-; Holahan and Moos, 1990, 1991; Vitaliano, Maiuro, and Russo, 1987). For example, active coping strategies utilizing optimistic comparisons and negotiation have been linked to fewer future role proble...

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...imilar physiologically driven rhythm. Such physiological predispositions tend to disrupt daytime sleep efforts. Moreover, because waking typically occurs on the rising phase of the temperature cycle (=-=Czeisler et al., 1980-=-), daytime sleep after a nightshift tends to be shortened and distorted. More specifically, such truncated daytime sleep affects primarily stage 2 sleep and rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, and to a le...

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...tive Support Whereas most studies have focused on the positive nature of social support, other researchers have underscored the negative aspect of social support; that is, being "let down" by others (=-=Brown et al., 1986-=-; Finch et al., 1989). Being disappointed by others may attenuate psychological well-being in at least two ways (Daniels and Guppy, 1995). First, negative support may inhibit achieving the social psyc...

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...ns linked to the results of earlier stress-illness research. For example, despite the consistency of stressor effects, the amount of variance predicted in distress is typically less than ten percent (=-=Cohen and Edwards, 1989-=-). Moreover, individuals show highly variable reactions to stressors; many persons remain healthy despite being exposed to stressful circumstances and some people mature more rapidly after effectively...

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...ted that the determinants of coping behavior have been conceptualized in different ways. Broadly, whereas some studies consider coping as a response to the characteristics of the particular stressor (=-=Coyne et al., 1981-=-; Folkman et al., 1986; Mattlin et al., 1990; McRae, 1984), other investigations have conceptualized coping as 52reflecting personal characteristics contributing to the utilization of consistent copi...

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...more structured use of time, which in turn related to better coping with shiftwork (Smith, 1995). Internality on the SHLOC was also positively related to alertness and flexibility of sleeping habits (=-=Akerstedt, 1990-=-; Costa et al., 1989), a significant finding given that these variables are thought to be connected with increased tolerance to and safer performance during shiftwork. High internals also reported exp...

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...iftwork impact sleep, alertness, and performance. Increasingly, sleepiness and its implications for health and safety have also been recognized as a critical public health issue (Mitler et al., 1988; =-=Akerstedt, 1995-=-; Lehrer, 1998, 2003). In fact, impaired and truncated sleep are among the most frequent problems of shiftwork (Spelten et al., 1995). Because sleepiness disturbs the ability of nighttime workers to s...

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...emporary theories of stress. Coping has been broadly defined as "things that people do to avoid being harmed by life-strains" (Pearlin and Schooler, 1978, p.2) and "any efforts at stress management" (=-=Cohen and Lazarus, 1979-=-, p. 220). Fleishman (1984) defines coping as cognitive or behavioral responses "to reduce or eliminate psychological distress or stressful conditions" (p. 229). More generally, coping is viewed as a ...

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... most studies have focused on the positive nature of social support, other researchers have underscored the negative aspect of social support; that is, being "let down" by others (Brown et al., 1986; =-=Finch et al., 1989-=-). Being disappointed by others may attenuate psychological well-being in at least two ways (Daniels and Guppy, 1995). First, negative support may inhibit achieving the social psychological needs that...

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...f sleep are also negatively impacted on a morning shift (e.g.., 7 a.m. - 3 p.m.), since the worker is required to awaken at a time when the circadian rhythm is near its lowest phase (Akerstedt, 1985; =-=Folkard and Barton, 1993-=-). Consequently, there are direct implications for the ability of a worker to readjust following rapid changes in work/rest schedules, or to cope with patterns of work and rest that are out of sync wi...

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...ure further suggests that externals are less likely to engage in coping through active problem solving and are more likely to engage in emotion focused strategies such as avoidance (Strickland, 1978; =-=Fleishman, 1984-=-; Parkes, 1984; Carver et al., 1989; Terry, 1991). In a thorough review of the effects of locus of control in organizational settings, Spector (1982) presented evidence that internals are more likely ...

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...ngs with diverse population groups has shown that life change (particularly negative change) is associated with stress reactions that involve anxiety and depression as well as psychosomatic symptoms (=-=Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend, 1981-=-). Thus early stress research presumed a straightforward link between life change and dysfunction (Rahe and Arthur, 1987), and can therefore be appropriately labeled stress-illness research. Changes i...

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...he stress. For example, among individuals treated for depression, more use of problem solving and less 13dependence on emotional discharge were related to better outcome at follow-up one year later (=-=Billings and Moos, 1985-=-). Additionally, depressed patients who depended less on emotional discharge at a one-year treatment follow-up reported less depression and fewer physical symptoms four years post-treatment (Swindle, ...

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...se of time, which in turn related to better coping with shiftwork (Smith, 1995). Internality on the SHLOC was also positively related to alertness and flexibility of sleeping habits (Akerstedt, 1990; =-=Costa et al., 1989-=-), a significant finding given that these variables are thought to be connected with increased tolerance to and safer performance during shiftwork. High internals also reported experiencing better psy...

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...Linking alertness with performance, studies have consistently demonstrated that errors in performance also evidence a circadian variation, occurring most frequently in the early hours of the morning (=-=Folkard and Monk, 1979-=-). Regarding errors contributing to fatalities, such mistakes were most apt to occur during skilled behavior and to occur immediately before the accident (Williamson and Feyer, 1990). 33An interestin...

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...es of night work are difficult to ascertain given that those workers experiencing the greatest amount of symptomatology are likely to have changed to day work, leaving behind a "survivor population" (=-=Frese and Semmer, 1986-=-). Such a drop-out effect may account for some lack of consistency among certain studies in the shiftwork stress literature (Barton et al., 1995; Lehrer, 1999). Broadly, however, there is consensus on...

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... increases the normal attenuation in mental and physical efficiency during nighttime 34hours. Such a circadian dip in performance can be especially critical during emergency situations (Costa, 1991; =-=Folkard, 1990-=-). Moreover, stress states can also emerge as transient negative states induced by job task demands and the work environment (Dalbokova et al., 1995), such as exposure to prolonged and monotonous work...

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...f optimally designed shift schedules (Akerstedt, 1997; Barton, 1995; Folkard, 90; Hornberger and Knauth, 1995; Monk, 1986) in conjunction with relevant shiftworker lifestyle training, (Barrett, 1995; =-=Folkard et al., 1978-=-; Kundi et al., 1981; Nicholson and Marks, 1983; Waterhouse, 1992), since job satisfaction and attitude towards one's work schedule affect not only motivation and absenteeism, but also adjustment and ...

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...ect the safety of the employee, coworkers, and the population at large. In fact, laboratory research on vigilance under watch keeping tasks has demonstrated a reduction in signal detection over time (=-=Davies et al., 1983-=-). As well, increasing irritability may occur as a result of the monotonous work environment (Grandjean, 1987). Interestingly, a considerable increase has also been observed among nightshift workers i...

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...t al., 1995). Shiftworkers are at greater risk for lapses in attention that can result in personal injury and poorer task performance (Helmreich & Davies, 2004; Lehrer, 2002; Filor, 1998; Hill, 1998; =-=Folkard and Monk, 1985-=-; Scott, 1990; Smith and Folkard, 1994). Thus, efforts towards better understanding the roles of demand, control, and support in predicting stress and performance can benefit employees and corporation...

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...of work stress are associated with both operative (i.e., feelings of loss of control, traffic peaks, time pressure) and organizational aspects (i.e., shiftwork, human relations, working conditions), (=-=Crump, 1979-=-; Farmer, 1990). Shiftwork in particular can be a crucial factor regarding both performance and adjustment, since optimal mental functioning is required throughout the shift (Luna, 1997), regardless o...

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...srhythmic work schedule effects among shiftworkers. For example, the amount of control given to employees in deciding work hours has been shown to affect shiftworkers' ratings of shiftwork tolerance (=-=Barton et al., 1993-=-). Age Akerstedt and Torsvall (1981) suggest that age is an important factor in individual adjustment to working shifts. More specifically, the literature suggests that there is a certain age in the l...

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...ORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Several theoretical issues highlighted in the literature review (Barton, 1995; Bosch, 1990; Cohen and Edwards, 1989; Cohen and McKay, 1984; Corlett et al., 1988; Curson, 1986; =-=Folkard, 1992-=-; Folkman and Lazarus, 1985; Heaney, 1995; Kogi, 1991; Kogi, 1995; Kogi and diMartino, 1995; Lehrer, 1996; Smith and Barton, 1994; Terry, 1991; Thoits, 1985; Wedderburn, 1989) are now addressed to pro...

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... or to instead rotate through it to spend less overall time working nights. Although some studies have proposed that nurses working rotating shifts may experience higher levels of job-related stress (=-=Coffey et al., 1988-=-), less sleep (Lee, 1992; Akerstedt, 1996), and more health complaints (Verhaegen et al., 1987) than do fixed nightshift nurses, comparisons between the two groups are complicated by the fact that the...

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...1997). The troublesome nature of working nights is not surprising, given that many studies have shown that adjustment of circadian rhythms and sleep-wake patterns to nighttime work is never complete (=-=Colquhoun et al., 1968-=-; Knauth et., 1978, Lehrer, 1998; Torsvall et al., 1981; Dahlegren, 1981). Anecdotally, a common source of frustration among fixed nightshift workers relates to their faulty perception that they may i...

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..., it is predicted that schedule demand will predict poorer subsequent adjustment for employees at or above the age of forty five (see Akerstedt and Torsvall, 1981; Barton, 1995; Spelten et al., 1995; =-=Brugere et al., 1997-=-), and for employees with fifteen or more years of shiftwork experience (see Beermann and Nachreiner, 1990; Nachreiner, et al., 1995; Heslegrave, 1998). Moreover, it is predicted that age and years of...

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...., 1981; Folkard et al., 1978). Interestingly, a number of studies investigating only changes in shift schedules have found no-difference results in health disturbances for periods of 1 year or less (=-=Akerstedt and Torsvall, 1980-=-; Knauth and Kiesswetter, 1987), although changes in sleep disturbances and fatigue were seen. Perhaps longer periods are required to see significant health changes, or perhaps the schedule change pro...

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...al for human error (Tilley et al., 1982). Other studies have consistently shown that vigilance tasks require substantial mental effort by the operator (Davies et al., 1983; Krueger, 1989; Warm, 1984; =-=Arnold & Hartley, 1998-=-). For example, long-distance driving is a task that demands periods of sustained attention, often under monotonous conditions. Therefore it is not surprising that the risk of heavy vehicular accident...

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...ore, Phase Response Curves (PRC's) gathered in temporal isolation units indicated that early morning light produces advance and evening light produces delay of the normal circadian temperature cycle (=-=Czeisler et al., 1989-=-). In contrast, only a slight shift was observed when the stimulus occurred within subjective day. The phase-shifting effect of bright light may help to normalize the association between daytime sleep...

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... Furthermore, it is significant that human error during the night shift has been associated with system failure in the large industrial accidents of our time, such as Three Mile Island and Chernobyl (=-=Ehret, 1980-=-; Folkard, 1990). Fear of Committing Errors Moreover, Gadbois et al. (1987) demonstrated that there exists an awareness among shiftworkers of attenuated functional competence during the nightshift and...

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... control, and support variables. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Several theoretical issues highlighted in the literature review (Barton, 1995; Bosch, 1990; Cohen and Edwards, 1989; Cohen and McKay, 1984; =-=Corlett et al., 1988-=-; Curson, 1986; Folkard, 1992; Folkman and Lazarus, 1985; Heaney, 1995; Kogi, 1991; Kogi, 1995; Kogi and diMartino, 1995; Lehrer, 1996; Smith and Barton, 1994; Terry, 1991; Thoits, 1985; Wedderburn, 1...

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... that further increases the normal attenuation in mental and physical efficiency during nighttime 34hours. Such a circadian dip in performance can be especially critical during emergency situations (=-=Costa, 1991-=-; Folkard, 1990). Moreover, stress states can also emerge as transient negative states induced by job task demands and the work environment (Dalbokova et al., 1995), such as exposure to prolonged and ...

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...variables. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Several theoretical issues highlighted in the literature review (Barton, 1995; Bosch, 1990; Cohen and Edwards, 1989; Cohen and McKay, 1984; Corlett et al., 1988; =-=Curson, 1986-=-; Folkard, 1992; Folkman and Lazarus, 1985; Heaney, 1995; Kogi, 1991; Kogi, 1995; Kogi and diMartino, 1995; Lehrer, 1996; Smith and Barton, 1994; Terry, 1991; Thoits, 1985; Wedderburn, 1989) are now a...

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...e with shift experience. Gender Although some researchers suggest that there are different effects of shiftwork for men and women, other findings do not support such a difference (Costa et al., 1990; =-=Dekker and Tepas, 1990-=-; Rutenfranz et al., 1987). One reason for the lack of agreement is the dearth of comparative studies on the effects of shiftwork on men and women working the same job under comparable working conditi...

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...TIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK-REST SCHEDULES As noted earlier, work-rest schedules are particularly important when considering the overall decrement in performance that occurs during the nightshift (=-=Eilers and Nachreiner, 1990-=-). This can be especially true for jobs requiring sustained, vigilant monitoring, where the equipment is often so technologically advanced that manual intervention is greatly reduced and primarily nec...

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...activity, corroborating earlier findings dating back to Jacobsen (1931). Interestingly, women may be more vulnerable to musculoskeletal disorders, even when working under identical conditions as men (=-=Evans, 1987-=-). Furthermore, some individuals may be more susceptible to general muscular tension under stressful conditions, which may in turn make them more vulnerable to developing musculoskeletal pain and rela...

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...terns also change with age as an older person's sleep becomes shorter and more disrupted; that is, circadian rhythms tend to desynchronize more easily. Also, rhythms tend to show decreased amplitude (=-=Akerstedt and Torsvall, 1981-=-). Consequently, older people tend to sleep fewer consecutive hours and supplement this loss of sleep with naps during the day (Monk, 1989; Rosa et al., 1990). Thus, the age of a shiftworker can negat...

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...ore specifically, such truncated daytime sleep affects primarily stage 2 sleep and rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, and to a lesser degree, slow-wave sleep (SWS) is also affected (Tilley et al., 1982; =-=Akerstedt, et al., 1991-=-). As well, psychosocial influences affect sleep quality and duration, since nightwork is typically in direct conflict with both social and domestic commitments. Furthermore, environmental conditions ...

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...s overall time working nights. Although some studies have proposed that nurses working rotating shifts may experience higher levels of job-related stress (Coffey et al., 1988), less sleep (Lee, 1992; =-=Akerstedt, 1996-=-), and more health complaints (Verhaegen et al., 1987) than do fixed nightshift nurses, comparisons between the two groups are complicated by the fact that the nightshift is not the only problematic s...

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...siological outcome of stress by individual differences in the psychological appraisal of stress. 46Muscular Tension and Other Effects Other physiological correlates of stress have also been studied (=-=Beyers, et al., 2000-=-). For example, Ekberg et al. (1995) showed that psychological stress can increase muscle activity, corroborating earlier findings dating back to Jacobsen (1931). Interestingly, women may be more vuln...

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...rventions aimed at attenuating maladaptive aspects of demand, control, and support variables. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Several theoretical issues highlighted in the literature review (Barton, 1995; =-=Bosch, 1990-=-; Cohen and Edwards, 1989; Cohen and McKay, 1984; Corlett et al., 1988; Curson, 1986; Folkard, 1992; Folkman and Lazarus, 1985; Heaney, 1995; Kogi, 1991; Kogi, 1995; Kogi and diMartino, 1995; Lehrer, ...

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... triangulation of each construct under consideration. As Table 1 demonstrates, Kristensen’s 3S matrix allows for the integration of 45 unique matrix combinations. Applying prior theoretical research (=-=Campbell and Fiske, 1959-=-) validity is likely strengthened as multiple traits and measures are realized and integrated into subsequent analyses. Table 1. The 3S-Matrix: Relationships Among Stressors, Stress and Sickness (1) (...

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...s (Cohen and McKay, 1984; Cohen and Edwards, 1989; Thoits, 1985). Nonetheless, very 90little is known regarding the breadth of the coping response, or of coping breadth as a predictor of adjustment (=-=Carver et al., 1993-=-). More specifically, does breadth of coping repertoire, subsumed under the rubric of coping flexibility, relate to stress and coping processes? That is, does the number and selection of possible copi...

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...es in adjustment. Moreover, the study seeks to rigorously examine the mechanisms underscoring the nature of shiftwork as a stressor affecting psychological health (Bohle and Tilley, 1993; Cole, 1996; =-=Costa, 1993-=-; Tasto, et al., 1978; Wynne et al., 1986), physical health (Akerstedt, 1987; Barton et al., 1995; Costa, 1993; Moore-Ede and Richardson, 1985; Theorell et al., 1988), and both safety (Folkard and Mon...

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...ship appear to change with shift experience. Gender Although some researchers suggest that there are different effects of shiftwork for men and women, other findings do not support such a difference (=-=Costa et al., 1990-=-; Dekker and Tepas, 1990; Rutenfranz et al., 1987). One reason for the lack of agreement is the dearth of comparative studies on the effects of shiftwork on men and women working the same job under co...

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...ightshift workers. Moreover, studies have demonstrated improvements of both nighttime performance and diurnal sleep quality 42and quantity during simulated nightshift performance under bright light (=-=Czeisler et al., 1991-=-; Dawson and Campbell, 1991; Eastman, 1987). Summary At a general level, decrements in nighttime alertness as compared to the day are well replicated across a wide range of laboratory and field studie...

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...any studies have shown that adjustment of circadian rhythms and sleep-wake patterns to nighttime work is never complete (Colquhoun et al., 1968; Knauth et., 1978, Lehrer, 1998; Torsvall et al., 1981; =-=Dahlegren, 1981-=-). Anecdotally, a common source of frustration among fixed nightshift workers relates to their faulty perception that they may in some way have something uniquely wrong with them because they can not ...

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...ts (Costa, 1999; Barton et al., 1995). Shiftworkers are at greater risk for lapses in attention that can result in personal injury and poorer task performance (Helmreich & Davies, 2004; Lehrer, 2002; =-=Filor, 1998-=-; Hill, 1998; Folkard and Monk, 1985; Scott, 1990; Smith and Folkard, 1994). Thus, efforts towards better understanding the roles of demand, control, and support in predicting stress and performance c...

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... a considerable increase has also been observed among nightshift workers in the percentage who perceived difficulty transitioning from routine monitoring to rapid responding to an abnormal situation (=-=Gadbois et al. 1987-=-; Lehrer & Mitchell, 2002) . 35Such nighttime barriers to alertness were noted in a report to the International Atomic Energy Agency (Grauf, 1988), whose findings suggest that, "the inability to perf...