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Working memory and intelligence: the same or different constructs
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2005
"... All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. ..."
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All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.
Activation of completed, uncompleted, and partially completed intentions
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 1998
"... The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl (1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect ..."
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Cited by 60 (9 self)
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The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl (1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect. We used a lexical-decision task to replicate that shorter latencies were associated with uncompleted intentions as compared with neutral materials (Experiments 1 and 3). Experiments 2-4, however, demonstrated that latencies were longer for completed scripts as compared with neutral materials. In Experiment 4, shorter latencies were also obtained for partially completed scripts. The results are discussed in terms of the activation and inhibition that may guide behavior, as well as how these results may inform theories of prospective memory. Prospective memory is a complex form of human memory that functions in service of completing temporarily postponed intentions. Published research reports on the topic are not numerous, but the field is growing (cf. Roediger, 1996). One distinction that is often made in this literature is
Multiple Processes in Prospective Memory Retrieval: Factors Determining Monitoring versus Spontaneous Retrieval
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 2005
"... Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether perfo ..."
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Cited by 45 (7 self)
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Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether performing a prospective memory task produced costs on the speed of performing the ongoing task. In Experiment 5, the authors directly tested for the existence of spontaneous retrieval. The results supported the multi-process theory (M. A. McDaniel & G. O. Einstein, 2000) predictions that (a) spontaneous retrieval can occur and can support good prospective memory and (b) depending on task demands and individual differences, people rely to different degrees on monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval for prospective remembering.
Modeling Individual Differences in Working Memory Performance: A Source Activation Account
, 2001
"... Working memory resources are needed for processing and maintenance of information during cognitive tasks. Many models have been developed to capture the effects of limited working memory resources on performance. However, most of these models do not account for the finding that different individuals ..."
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Cited by 40 (2 self)
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Working memory resources are needed for processing and maintenance of information during cognitive tasks. Many models have been developed to capture the effects of limited working memory resources on performance. However, most of these models do not account for the finding that different individuals show different sensitivities to working memory demands, and none of the models predicts individual subjects' patterns of performance. We propose a computational model that accounts for differences in working memory capacity in terms of a quantity called source activation, which is used to maintain goal-relevant information in an available state. We apply this model to capture the working memory effects of individual subjects at a fine level of detail across two experiments. This, we argue, strengthens the interpretation of source activation as working memory capacity. 2001 Cognitive Science Society, Inc. All rights reserved.
Interference to ongoing activities covaries with the characteristics of an event-based intention
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2003
"... Previous studies of event-based prospective memory have demonstrated that the character of an ongoing task can affect cue detection. By contrast, this study demonstrated that there is a reciprocal relationship insofar as cue-verification and response-retrieval processes interfered with making a resp ..."
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Cited by 30 (9 self)
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Previous studies of event-based prospective memory have demonstrated that the character of an ongoing task can affect cue detection. By contrast, this study demonstrated that there is a reciprocal relationship insofar as cue-verification and response-retrieval processes interfered with making a response in the ongoing task. The amount of interference was determined by the type of intention, which was manip-ulated to affect the complexity of verification and retrospective response retrieval. These relationships were true even when the interference caused by cue detection was separated from a more general effect to ongoing-task performance caused by shifts in attentional allocation policies. The results have theoretical implications for models that attempt to specify the cognitive microstructure of event-based prospective memory. People fulfill a variety of intentions in the course of everyday life. Some examples of different types of prospective-memory tasks include remembering to make a phone call after a certain duration has elapsed (a time-based task), performing an activity right after finishing a different one (an activity-based task), deliv-ering a message to an acquaintance (an event-based task), attend-ing a seminar on changes in health benefits (a novel task), taking vitamins or medication (a habitual intention), and so forth (Bran-dimonte, Einstein, & McDaniel, 1996). The particular cuing con-ditions associated with these different intentions vary along many dimensions, such as the amount of self-initiated processing that is
The dynamics of intention retrieval and coordination of action in event-based prospective memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2002
"... Event-based prospective memory requires responding to cues in the environment that are associated with a previously established intention. Some researchers believe that intentions reside in memory with an above baseline level of activation, a phenomenon called the intention superiority effect. The a ..."
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Cited by 30 (14 self)
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Event-based prospective memory requires responding to cues in the environment that are associated with a previously established intention. Some researchers believe that intentions reside in memory with an above baseline level of activation, a phenomenon called the intention superiority effect. The authors of this study predicted that intention superiority would be masked by additional cognitive processes associated with successful event-based prospective memory. These additional processes include noticing the cue, retrieving the intention, and coordinating intention execution with the ongoing activity. In 3 experiments, intention superiority was demonstrated by faster latencies to the ongoing activity on failed prospective trials and the existence of the additional processes was demonstrated by slower latencies on successful trials. This study demonstrates the importance of investigating the microstructure of the cognitive components involved with processing and responding to an event-based prospective memory cue. In the course of everyday life people often encounter cues in their environment that cause them to recollect events that occurred in the past. For example, a sheaf of papers collected at a conference may evoke memories of a recent trip, or the sight of a
Prospective memory: Multiple retrieval processes
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
, 2005
"... ABSTRACT—An interesting challenge for researchers who study prospective memory is to explain how people recognize environmental events as cues for actions. Whereas some theorists propose that a capacity-consuming monitoring process is the only means by which intentions can be retrieved, we argue tha ..."
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Cited by 28 (5 self)
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ABSTRACT—An interesting challenge for researchers who study prospective memory is to explain how people recognize environmental events as cues for actions. Whereas some theorists propose that a capacity-consuming monitoring process is the only means by which intentions can be retrieved, we argue that the cognitive system relies on multiple processes, including spontaneous processes that reflexively respond to the presence of target events. We present evidence for the existence of spontaneous retrieval processes and apply the idea of multiple processes to mixed findings on age-related decline in prospective memory. KEYWORDS—prospective memory; monitoring; spontaneous retrieval; automatic and controlled processes; aging and memory After a change in his usual routine, an adoring father forgot to turn toward the daycare center and instead drove his usual route to work at the university. Several hours later, his infant son, who had been quietly asleep in the back seat, was dead. Eight months after a hernia surgery, a patient complained of abdominal pain and nausea. A scan of his abdominal area revealed that a 16-cm clamp had been left from his previous surgery. Despite the best intentions of a surgical team of doctors and nurses, they had forgotten to remove the clamp. The above errors represent real failures of prospective memory (PM) or remembering to perform intended actions. Although they highlight the potentially disastrous consequences of some PM failures, it is important to realize that our daily lives are filled, and sometimes overflowing, with PM demands. From managing work activities (e.g., remembering to pack needed papers in the morning) to coordinating social relations (e.g., remembering to take children to parties) to handling healthrelated needs (e.g., remembering to take medication), good PM is
Handbook of experimental psychology
, 1951
"... The primary interest of this investigation concerned working memory functioning and cue/act discrimination during encoding of intentions. The study included manipulations of working memory and intention load to investigate the encoding processes related to prospective memory (PM). Three experiments ..."
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Cited by 23 (0 self)
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The primary interest of this investigation concerned working memory functioning and cue/act discrimination during encoding of intentions. The study included manipulations of working memory and intention load to investigate the encoding processes related to prospective memory (PM). Three experiments are presented that involve working memory distraction tasks at the time of encoding the PM intentions, as well as varying numbers of cues and actions. In the first experiment three cues were paired with one action, in the second, one cue with three actions, and in the third, three cues with three actions. Results suggest that the central executive is involved in binding a cue to an action, and that this operation is key to PM success. Furthermore, the phonological loop seems primarily involved with processing of cues and the visuospatial sketchpad with actions. It is further proposed that the processes of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad must be successful before the central executive can bind the cues and acts together, which is possibly the most important part in the encoding of intentions. By directly examining PM at the time of encoding, information was gained that allows for a more complete understanding of the nature of how we form and execute intentions.
On the relationship between effort toward an ongoing task and cue detection in event-based prospective memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2005
"... In recent theories of event-based prospective memory, researchers have debated what degree of resources are necessary to identify a cue as related to a previously established intention. In order to simulate natural variations in attention, the authors manipulated effort toward an ongoing cognitive t ..."
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Cited by 20 (4 self)
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In recent theories of event-based prospective memory, researchers have debated what degree of resources are necessary to identify a cue as related to a previously established intention. In order to simulate natural variations in attention, the authors manipulated effort toward an ongoing cognitive task in which intention-related cues were embedded in 3 experiments. High effort toward the ongoing task resulted in decreased prospective memory only when the cognitive processing required to identify the cue was similar to the cognitive processing required to complete the ongoing activity. When the required processing was different for the 2 tasks, cue detection was not affected by manipulated effort, despite there being an overall cost to decision latencies in the ongoing tasks from possessing the intention. Resource allocation policies and factors that affect them are proposed to account for ongoing vs. prospective memory task performance. When an activity cannot be carried out immediately, people must establish an intention in memory to perform it at a later time. Such memories are labeled prospective memories to denote their forward-looking nature and to distinguish them from retrospective memories for events that transpired in one’s personal past. One
The properties of retention intervals and their affect on retaining prospective memories
, 2000
"... Five experiments were conducted to explore how the character of the retention interval affected event-based prospective memory. According to the canons of retrospective memory, prospective per-formance should have been worse with increasing delays between intention formation and the time it was appr ..."
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Cited by 16 (5 self)
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Five experiments were conducted to explore how the character of the retention interval affected event-based prospective memory. According to the canons of retrospective memory, prospective per-formance should have been worse with increasing delays between intention formation and the time it was appropriate to complete an action. That result did not occur. Rather, prospective memory was better with increasing retention intervals in Experiments 1 A, IB, and 3. In manipulating the nature of the retention interval, the authors found that there were independent contributions of retention interval length and the number of intervening activities, with more activities leading to better prospective memory (Experi-ments 2 and 3). The identical retention intervals did not improve retrospective memory in Experiment 4. Theoretical explanations for these dissociations between prospective and retrospective memory are considered. In the classic studies performed by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/ 1964), he demonstrated that memory declines with increasing delays between study and test. By teaching himself lists of 13 syllables to a criterion of two correct recalls, he systematically varied the retention interval from 20 min to 31 days. Ebbinghaus discovered that the forgetting curve, as it is now known, was approximated by a logarithmic function with a fast initial rate of forgetting over the near term and a slower decline in forgetting as retention intervals were increased. The forgetting curve appears to be a very general property of retrospective memory because it is true of foreign language learning (Bahrick & Phelps, 1987), typing skills (Baddeley & Longman, 1978) and even cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills (McKenna & Glendon, 1985). Although there is no agreement on why this law of forgetting is so pervasive across different materials, many memory theorists favor interfer-ence accounts of retrospective forgetting over decay theories that depict memory traces as simply crumbling into parts over time
