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...epartments or just other individualsQ (May et al., 2003, p. 248). This emerging interest in authentic leadership raises some very important research questions: What constitutes authentic leadership? What behaviors constitute acts of authentic leadership? How can authentic leadership be measured? Does authentic leadership vary across cultures? How can authentic leadership and followership be developed? How does an authentic leader impact followers’ attitudes, behaviors, and performance? In this paper, we address the last question. 2.1. Authentic leadership and followers’ identification Work by Bono and Judge (2003) and Shamir and colleagues (e.g., Kark & Shamir, 2002; Kark et al., 2003; Shamir et al., 1993; Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, & Popper, 2000) has shown the importance of social and personal identification in the leadership process. More specifically, it has been suggested that leaders affect the identities of followers, in turn influencing their self-regulatory processes (Day, 2000; Lord & Brown, 2001; Lord, Brown, & Freiberg, 1999; Lord & Emrich, 2000; Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Luthans and Avolio (2003) suggested that one of the authentic leader’s core challenges is to identify followers’ strengths a...

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...Patterson, Hester, & Stringer, 1996; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996), and studies have begun to examine the process by which those effects are ultimately realized (e.g., =-=Bono & Judge, 2003-=-; Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002; Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003). A central tenet of the transformational approach is that such effects are transmitted through follower reactions to a leader. Early s...

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...yfield Rothe scale (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951), with a 5-point response scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The scale is reliable and has recently been used by Judge and colleagues (=-=Bono & Judge, 2003-=-; Judge, Bono, & Locke, 2000; Judge & Colquitt, 2004). Sample items are “I feel fairly satisfied with my present job” and “I find real enjoyment in my work.” The internal consistency for this scale wa...

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...ond, prosocial and intrinsic motivations differ in terms of goal directedness. When intrinsically motivated, employees are process focused—they see the work as an end in and of itself (Amabile, 1993; =-=Bono & Judge, 2003-=-; Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997). When prosocially motivated, employees are outcome focused—they see the work as a means to the end goal of benefiting others (Grant, 2007). Put diffe...

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...ed that the four dimensions of transformational leadership are highly intercorrelated, and that their relations with outcome variables are similar (see Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). However, there may be theoretical and practical value to studying the four transformational leadership dimensions separately in some settings (Antonakis et al., 2003), especially when these settings have not received much research attention. Because the empirical literature on leadership in virtual communication settings is still young, in this study we examine the broad transformational composite (e.g., Bono & Judge, 2003; Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003), as well as the transformational dimensions (e.g., Sosik et al., 1998). Further, leadership is a complex construct that could be described and measured in multiple ways. For example, transformational leadership theory (Bass, 1985) represents a clearly behavioral approach to leadership which specifies exactly what transformational leaders do. In contrast, attributional theories (e.g., Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Shamir, 1992) and categorization theories (e.g., Lord,1985; Lord &Maher,1991; Yukl,1998) suggest that followers are likely to view leaders as charismatic if th...

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... addition, work engagement (more specifically vigor and dedication) has been hypothesized by these researchers as the opposite of burnout, which is defined as emotional exhaustion and cynicism. Gonzalez-Roma, Schaufeli, and Bakker (2006) suggested that the burnout (emotional exhaustion and cynicism) and engagement (vigor and dedication) are opposites along two distinct bipolar dimensions labeled energy and identification. In other words, employees who are cynical and exhausted are less likely to be dedicated to their job. Previous research has investigated the motivational effects of leaders. Bono and Judge (2003) found that followers of transformational leaders reported more self-concept engagement in their work. These findings used the self-concordance model as defined by Sheldon and Elliot (1999), which is the extent a person’s activities such as work-related tasks or goals are a reflection of his or her authentic interests and values (Bono & Judge). Extending this research on the motivational effects of leaders, Strickland et al. (2007) empirically investigated the relations among work engagement, charismatic leadership, and turnover. Using a sample of 59 undergraduate college students, these resea...

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...int Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (frequently, if not always). A sample item is “Articulates a compelling vision of the future.” Consistent with our level of theorizing (also see =-=Bono & Judge, 2003-=-; Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, & Popper, 1998; Wang & Walumbwa, 2007), we measured transformational leadership as aggregate of individual-level ratings. To justify the aggregation of individual ratings of ...

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...ariance among the four leadership components (50 2 279.31, p .01; SRMR .05, NNFI .91, IFI .93); therefore, we aggregated over dimensions ( .94). Moreover, following past research (e.g., =-=Bono & Judge, 2003-=-), we averaged over raters to obtain an aggregate leadership rating for each leader (F95, 433 2.41, p .01; ICC[1] .24; ICC[2] .58; rwg .85, assuming a slight negative skew in the data). Goal...

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...nicate a collective vision that inspires followers to look beyond their self-interests for the good of the group. Meta-analytic evidence strongly supports the relationship between transformational leadership and positively-oriented work-related outcomes such as performance and job satisfaction (Lowe et al., 1996). Related to the current study, Kark et al. (2003) suggested that transformational leadership is related to empowerment in followers (see also Masi, 1994). Furthermore, transformational leaders transform followers into leaders, thus making meaning out of work, providing autonomy, etc. Bono and Judge (2003) found that followers of transformational leaders viewed their work as more important and as more self-congruent. This lends support to the notion that followers of transformational leaders would believe that they are more empowered, perhaps through greater autonomy, meaning, and ownership. Further, Bono and Judge (2003) supported the relationship between a self-concept-based theory (Shamir et al., 1993) and motivational aspects such as goal-directed effort and goal attainment, which are integral components of Snyder’s hope theory (Snyder, 2000, 2002). In addition, Shamir et al. (1993) support...

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...es and ideals (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; House, 1977; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). Evidence suggests that when leaders engage in these visionary behaviors, followers set more value-congruent goals (=-=Bono & Judge, 2003-=-) and experience their work as more meaningful (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Purvanova, Bono, & Dzieweczynski, 2006). As a result, research has shown that on average, transformational leadership correlat...