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...not predict this effect directly but do suggest a natural way to accommodate it, one that happens to accord with empirical results dissociating the latency effect from the corresponding error effect (=-=Meiran & Kessler, 2008-=-). Figure 13 shows empirical and simulated latency congruency effects. Empirically, the effect seems to be linked to trial processing, because it registers on all positions of the run. We linked the e...

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...ration depends on switch probabilities. In any case, more research is needed to clarify the relation of congruency effects, switch costs, and task preparation (see also Kiesel, Wendt, & Peters, 2007; =-=Meiran & Kessler, 2008-=-). Yet, even if task preparation does not necessarily reduce the size of the congruency effect in the current trial, there may be nevertheless important effects of having responded to an incongruent s...

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...igh) and a righthand response in the odd–even task (because it is even). Th ese were incongruent targets. More generally, congruency relates to whether the target stimulus requires the same response according to both rules. Th e fact that congruence eff ects are highly replicable indicates fi ltering failure. Th ey show that the currently irrelevant task rule is operative and aff ects response choice. It should be mentioned here that Meiran and Daichman (2005) have recently suggested that the congruency eff ect found in errors represents the erroneous execution of the wrong task. In contrast, Meiran and Kessler (2008) show that the RT congruency eff ect refl ects the activation of overlearned stimulus category codes. Biederman’s (1972) study, described in Historical Foundations, shows that subjects are only partly successful in fi ltering out information that is relevant for one task rule but is irrelevant for the task rule that is currently required. Additional evidence that information fi ltering is used for task control comes from studies comparing univalent stimuli with bivalent stimuli. Th ese studies show smaller switch costs for univalent stimuli (e.g., Mayr, 2001; Meiran, 2000b). A similar role of ...

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...–target procedure, whereas response congruency has been examined in several studies (e.g., Brown, Reynolds, & Braver, 2007; Kiesel, Wendt, & Peters, 2007; Meiran, 2005; Meiran, Chorev, & Sapir, 2000; =-=Meiran & Kessler, 2008-=-; Monsell, Sumner, & Waters, 2003; Sudevan & Taylor, 1987). The typical finding is that response incongruent trials are slower and more error-prone than are congruent trials. This effect was addressed...

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...oute for response selection. A distinction can be made between two routes for response selection in task-switching situations: a mediated route and a nonmediated route (Kiesel, Wendt, & Peters, 2007; =-=Meiran & Kessler, 2008-=-; Schneider, 2014, 2015; Schneider & Logan, 2009, 2014). The mediated route involves categorizing a target with respect to one or more tasks, then using the instructed category–response mappings to ch...

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... switching between two tasks, participants need to maintain readiness to perform both tasks despite the fact that only one task is relevant in any given trial. Thus, while explicitly the participants are asked to categorize the names only by their Gender, implicitly they will be judged also by their Valence (disliked as Negative, and liked as Positive). These implicit Valence responses will influence Gender responses depending on the congruency of the two responses (incompatible slower than compatible). The response time advantage of congruent trials, called Task Rule Congruency Effect (TRCE; Meiran & Kessler, 2008, for review) reflects the automatic processing of the currently irrelevant dimension, according to Bargh’s (1989) and Tzelgov’s (1997) definition of automaticity. Specifically, the TRCE in the Gender task reflects the automatic processing of Valence. We used the TRCE measure in order to evaluate participant’s automatic processing while they performed a switching task between a Gender rule and a Valence rule. Our hypothesis was that higher levels of HPD features would be associated with heightened automatic processing of negative stimuli in the intimacy induced group compared to control induct...

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...ng is usually impaired for incongruent rather than congruent targets (e.g., Fagot, 1994; Kiesel, Wendt, & Peters, 2007; Meiran, 2000; Rogers & Monsell, 1995; Wendt & Kiesel, 2008; for reviews see Kiesel et al., 2010; Vandierendonck, Liefooghe, & Verbruggen, 2010). In the current study, we denote the performance difference between incongruent and congruent targets as the betweentask congruency effect. Both the exogenous task cuing effect and the betweentask congruency effect tend to be more pronounced on task switch trials than on task repetition trials (e.g., Fagot, 1994; Kiesel et al., 2007; Meiran & Kessler, 2008; Rogers & Monsell, 1995). Such switch-specific enhancement of interference related to representations of the currently irrelevant task is not surprising given that these task representations (i.e., the irrelevant task set) are assumed to have higher activation after recent application (Allport, Styles, & Hsieh, 1994; Gilbert & Shallice, 2002; Koch, 2001; Koch & Allport, 2006). A theoretical alternative to this proactive interference account, however, is to assume that task switch trials and task repetition trials differ more generally regarding susceptibility to irrelevant stimulus informatio...

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...riming becomes weaker when fewer of the Task 1 stimuli overlap with Task 2 responses, as took place in the highload and higher load conditions. Aside from ruling out this alternative explanation, Experiment 3 was also run in order to clarify the nature of the task rules that give rise to the BCE. One hypothesis, the S–R rule hypothesis, states that the rules link each stimulus directly to its response. Another hypothesis, the C–R rule hypothesis, is that the stimuli are linked to abstract response categories and these response categories are linked, in turn, to the responses (see Logan, 1990; Meiran & Kessler, 2008; Pashler & Baylis, 1991; Schuch & Koch, 2003). The load manipulations that were used in Experiments 1 and 2 could not discriminate between these options because each concrete stimulus (color) was linked to a unique response category. Nonetheless, the literature strongly favors the C–R rule hypothesis. For example, Logan and Schulkind (2000) used parity and magnitude judgments of eight digits. If each digit was paired with the response through a separate link, as the S–R hypothesis states, the load was such that no BCE should have been observed (due to the enormous WM load: 8 S–R rules, in thi...

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... instructed mappings compared to a neutral condition. However, they did not find differences between instructed distractors that are response congruent versus incongruent with the target. Second, the effect of the constant distractors is quite substantial (37 ms). It seems to us to be unlikely that instructed mappings are able to cancel this effect entirely. In this context, one more observation seems to be noteworthy: the dissociation of RT and error rates in the present study bears some resemblance to the dissociation between RT and error rate task rule congruency effects (TRCE) observed by Meiran and Kessler (2008). These authors put forward the notion that TRCEs for RTs are contingent on the practice-based formation of highly accessible representations in long-term memory. They argue that TRCEs in error data, by contrast, might result from translating a task rule that is independent of practice (see also Meiran & Daichman, 2005). It might be conceivable that RT and error effects in the current study are based to different extents on the two mechanisms in question, with, for example, RT effects being rather based on blocking of accumulated memory traces and error effects being based on the translation o...

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...y, it has been suggested that task elements such as response codes are represented in the activated part of long-term memory rather than in working memory itself (e.g., Kiesel, Wendt, & Peters, 2007; =-=Meiran & Kessler, 2008-=-; Rubin & Meiran, 2005). Second, and more importantly, while accounts calling upon task set reconfiguration are prominent, it is not univocally accepted that such processes are necessary to explain sw...