Abstract. In this article, we study the prehistory of type theory up to 1910 and its development between Russell and Whitehead’s Principia Mathematica ([71], 1910–1912) and Church’s simply typed λ-calculus of 1940. We first argue that the concept of types has always been present in mathematics, though nobody was incorporating them explicitly as such, before the end of the 19th century. Then we proceed by describing how the logical paradoxes entered the formal systems of Frege, Cantor and Peano concentrating on Frege’s Grundgesetze der Arithmetik for which Russell applied his famous paradox 1 and this led him to introduce the first theory of types, the Ramified Type Theory (rtt). We present rtt formally using the modern notation for type theory and we discuss how Ramsey, Hilbert and Ackermann removed the orders from rtt leading to the simple theory of types stt. We present stt and Church’s own simply typed λ-calculus (λ→C 2) and we finish by comparing rtt, stt and λ→C. §1. Introduction. Nowadays, type theory has many applications and is used in many different disciplines. Even within logic and mathematics, there are many different type systems. They serve several purposes, and are formulated in various ways. But, before 1903 when Russell first introduced

This article is a brief review of the type free λ-calculus and its basic rewriting notions, and of the pure type system framework which generalises many type systems. Both the type free λ-calculus and the pure type systems are presented using variable names and de Bruijn indices. Using the presentation of the λ-calculus with de Bruijn indices, we illustrate how a calculus of explicit substitutions can be obtained. In addition, de Bruijn's notation for the λ-calculus is introduced and some of its advantages are outlined.

The impact of computers on the formalisation and study of language

The evolution of types and logic in the 20th

– If you give me an algorithm to solve Π, I can check whether this algorithm really solves Π. – But, if you ask me to find an algorithm to solve Π, I may go on forever trying but without success. • But, this result was already found by Aristotle: Assume a proposition Φ. – If you give me a proof of Φ, I can check whether this proof really proves Φ. – But, if you ask me to find a proof of Φ, I may go on forever trying but without success. • In fact, programs are proofs and much of computer science in the early part of the 20th century was built by mathematicians and logicians. • There were also important inventions in computer science made by physicists (e.g., von Neumann) and others, but we ignore these in this talk. ISR 2009, Brasiliá, Brasil 1An example of a computable function/solvable problem • E.g., 1.5 chicken lay down 1.5 eggs in 1.5 days. • How many eggs does 1 chicken lay in 1 day? • 1.5 chicken lay 1.5 eggs in 1.5 days. • Hence, 1 chicken lay 1 egg in 1.5 days. • Hence, 1 chicken lay 2/3 egg in 1 day. ISR 2009, Brasiliá, Brasil 2Unsolvability of the Barber problem • which man barber in the village shaves all and only those men who do not shave themselves? • If John was the barber then – John shaves Bill ⇐ ⇒ Bill does not shave Bill – John shaves x ⇐ ⇒ x does not shave x – John shaves John ⇐ ⇒ John does not shave John • Contradiction. ISR 2009, Brasiliá, Brasil 3Unsolvability of the Russell set problem