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326
Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders
- Psychological Review
, 2002
"... A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that f ..."
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Cited by 294 (4 self)
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A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles. Leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in cor-porate, political, military, and other sectors of society. Although women have gained increased access to supervisory and middle management positions, they remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives. To explain this phenomenon, public and scientific discussion has centered on the idea of a “glass ceiling”—a barrier of prejudice and discrimination that excludes women from higher level leadership positions (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1987). To further this discussion, we advance a theory of prejudice toward female lead-ers and test the theory in relation to available empirical research. This integrative theory builds on social psychologists ’ tradition of studying prejudice and stereotyping and industrial–organizational psychologists ’ tradition of studying perceptions of managerial roles. The popularity of the glass ceiling concept may stem from the rarity of women in major leadership posts, despite the presence of equality or near equality of the sexes on many other indicators. A number of statistics thus suggest equality: In the United States, women make up 46 % of all workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001b) and 45 % of those in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001a); women possess 51 % of bachelor’s degrees and 45 % of all
Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis
- Psychological Bulletin
, 1990
"... Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence isfound for both the presence and the absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-ste-reotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally orientedstyle and men in a task-oriented style, ..."
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Cited by 221 (2 self)
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Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence isfound for both the presence and the absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-ste-reotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally orientedstyle and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizationalstudies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic n the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were defined as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically orautocratically, women tended to adopt a more demo-cratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted interms of a social role theory of sex differences insocial behavior. In recent years many social scientists, management consul-tants, and other writers have addressed the topic of gender and
Social Signal Processing: Survey of an Emerging Domain
, 2008
"... The ability to understand and manage social signals of a person we are communicating with is the core of social intelligence. Social intelligence is a facet of human intelligence that has been argued to be indispensable and perhaps the most important for success in life. This paper argues that next- ..."
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Cited by 153 (32 self)
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The ability to understand and manage social signals of a person we are communicating with is the core of social intelligence. Social intelligence is a facet of human intelligence that has been argued to be indispensable and perhaps the most important for success in life. This paper argues that next-generation computing needs to include the essence of social intelligence – the ability to recognize human social signals and social behaviours like turn taking, politeness, and disagreement – in order to become more effective and more efficient. Although each one of us understands the importance of social signals in everyday life situations, and in spite of recent advances in machine analysis of relevant behavioural cues like blinks, smiles, crossed arms, laughter, and similar, design and development of automated systems for Social Signal Processing (SSP) are rather difficult. This paper surveys the past efforts in solving these problems by a computer, it summarizes the relevant findings in social psychology, and it proposes a set of recommendations for enabling the development of the next generation of socially-aware computing.
Automatic Analysis of Multimodal Group Actions in Meetings
, 2003
"... This paper investigates the recognition of group actions in meetings. A framework is employed in which group actions result from the interactions of the individual participants. The group actions are modelled using different HMM-based approaches, where the observations are provided by a set of audio ..."
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Cited by 152 (29 self)
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This paper investigates the recognition of group actions in meetings. A framework is employed in which group actions result from the interactions of the individual participants. The group actions are modelled using different HMM-based approaches, where the observations are provided by a set of audio-visual features monitoring the actions of individuals. Experiments demonstrate the importance of taking interactions into account in modelling the group actions. It is also shown that the visual modality contains useful information, even for predominantly audio-based events, motivating a multimodal approach to meeting analysis.
A social identity theory of leadership.
- Personality and Social Psychology Review,
, 2001
"... A social identity theory of leadership is described that views leadership as a group process generated by social categorization and prototype-based depersonalization processes associated with social identity. Group identification, as self-categorization, constructs an intragroup prototypicality gra ..."
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Cited by 148 (7 self)
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A social identity theory of leadership is described that views leadership as a group process generated by social categorization and prototype-based depersonalization processes associated with social identity. Group identification, as self-categorization, constructs an intragroup prototypicality gradient that invests the most prototypical member with the appearance of having influence; the appearance arises because members cognitively and behaviorally conform to the prototype. The appearance of influence becomes a reality through depersonalized social attraction processes that makefollowers agree and comply with the leader's ideas and suggestions. Consensual social attraction also imbues the leader with apparent status and creates a status-based structural differentiation within the group into leader(s) and followers, which has characteristics ofunequal status intergroup relations. In addition, afundamental attribution process constructs a charismatic leadership personality for the leader, which further empowers the leader and sharpens the leader-follower status differential. Empirical supportfor the theory is reviewed and a range of implications discussed, including intergroup dimensions, uncertainty reduction and extremism, power, and pitfalls ofprototype-based leadership. Over the past 25 years social psychology has placed relatively little emphasis on the study of leadership. This is probably associated with the well-documented decline during the 1960s and 1970s of interest in small group research, the associated ascendency of social cognition, the European emphasis on large scale intergroup relations, and the "outsourcing" of small group and leadership research to organizational and management departments (for historical overviews, see
FASTDash: A Visual Dashboard for Fostering Awareness
- in Software Teams. SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in computing systems
, 2007
"... Software developers spend significant time gaining and maintaining awareness of fellow developers ’ activities. FASTDash is a new interactive visualization that seeks to improve team activity awareness using a spatial representation of the shared code base that highlights team members ’ current acti ..."
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Cited by 99 (4 self)
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Software developers spend significant time gaining and maintaining awareness of fellow developers ’ activities. FASTDash is a new interactive visualization that seeks to improve team activity awareness using a spatial representation of the shared code base that highlights team members ’ current activities. With FASTDash, a developer can quickly determine which team members have source files checked out, which files are being viewed, and what methods and classes are currently being changed. The visualization can be annotated, allowing programmers to supplement activity information with additional status details. It provides immediate awareness of potential conflict situations, such as two programmers editing the same source file. FASTDash was developed through usercentered design, including surveys, team interviews, and in situ observation. Results from a field study show that FASTDash improved team awareness, reduced reliance on shared artifacts, and increased project-related communication. Additionally, the team that participated in our field study continues to use FASTDash.
Analysis of Sociability, Usability, and Community Dynamics • 231
- In Proceedings of the 33rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
"... The aim of this research is to develop an in-depth understanding of the dynamics of online group interaction and the relationship between the participation in an online community and an indi-vidual’s off-line life. The 21/2-year study of a thriving online health support community (Bob’s ACL WWWBoard ..."
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Cited by 74 (10 self)
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The aim of this research is to develop an in-depth understanding of the dynamics of online group interaction and the relationship between the participation in an online community and an indi-vidual’s off-line life. The 21/2-year study of a thriving online health support community (Bob’s ACL WWWBoard) used a broad fieldwork approach, guided by the ethnographic research techniques of observation, interviewing, and archival research in combination with analysis of the group’s dynamics during a one-week period. Research tools from the social sciences were used to develop a thick, rich description of the group. The significant findings of this study include: dependable and reliable technology is more important than state-of-the-art technology in this community; strong community development exists despite little differentiation of the community space provided by the software; members reported that participation in the community positively influenced their offline lives; strong group norms of support and reciprocity made externally-driven governance unneces-sary; tools used to assess group dynamics in face-to-face groups provide meaningful information about online group dynamics; and, membership patterns in the community and strong subgroups actively contributed to the community’s stability and vitality.
The role of positivity and connectivity in the performance of business teams: A nonlinear dynamics model
- American Behavioral Scientist
, 2004
"... Connectivity, the control parameter in a nonlinear dynamics model of team performance is mathematically linked to the ratio of positivity to negativity (P/N) in team interaction. By knowing the P/N ratio it is possible to run the nonlinear dynamics model that will portray what types of dynamics are ..."
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Cited by 72 (3 self)
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Connectivity, the control parameter in a nonlinear dynamics model of team performance is mathematically linked to the ratio of positivity to negativity (P/N) in team interaction. By knowing the P/N ratio it is possible to run the nonlinear dynamics model that will portray what types of dynamics are possible for a team. These dynamics are of three types: point attractor, limit cycle, and complexor (complex order, or “chaotic ” in the mathematical sense). Low performance teams end up in point attractor dynamics, medium perfomance teams in limit cycle dynamics, and high performance teams in complexor dynamics. Keywords: positivity; connectivity; team performance; nonlinear dynamics Positive organizational scholars have made an explicit call for the use of nonlinear models stating that their field “is especially interested in the nonlinear positive dynamics... that are frequently associated with positive organizational phenomena ” (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003, pp. 4-5). This article answers this call by showing how a nonlinear dynamics model, the meta learning (ML) model, developed and validated against empirical time series data of business
Distributed leadership in schools: The case of elementary schools adopting comprehensive school reform models. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
, 2003
"... leadership focused on the activities of a single member of the school community—the school principal (Bridges, 1982). A well-known conclu-sion from this research was that strong principal leadership—and especially strong instructional leadership—is central to successful program-matic change and inst ..."
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Cited by 67 (5 self)
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leadership focused on the activities of a single member of the school community—the school principal (Bridges, 1982). A well-known conclu-sion from this research was that strong principal leadership—and especially strong instructional leadership—is central to successful program-matic change and instructional improvement (see, for example, Berman and McLaughlin,
Mood and emotions in small groups and work teams
- Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes
, 2001
"... Affective influences abound in groups. In this article we pro-pose an organizing model for understanding these affective influ-ences and their effects on group life. We begin with individual-level affective characteristics that members bring to their groups: moods, emotions, sentiments, and emotiona ..."
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Cited by 56 (2 self)
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Affective influences abound in groups. In this article we pro-pose an organizing model for understanding these affective influ-ences and their effects on group life. We begin with individual-level affective characteristics that members bring to their groups: moods, emotions, sentiments, and emotional intelligence. These affective characteristics then combine to form a group's affective composition. We discuss explicit and implicit processes through which this affective combination occurs by examining the research on emotional contagion, entrainment, modeling, and the manipulation of affect. We also explore how elements of the affective context, such as organizationwide emotion norms and the group's particular emotional history, may serve to constrain or amplify group members ' emotions. The outcome, group emo-tion, results from the combination of the group's affective compo-sition and the affective context in which the group is behaving. Last, we focus on the important interaction between nonaffective factors and affective factors in group life and suggest a possible agenda for future research. q 2001 Academic Press During the past century, a tremendous amount of research attention has been devoted to understanding the structure and performance of small groups The order of authorship was determined by coin toss. Both authors contributed equally to the
