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...lland, Steenaert, & van Knippenberg, 2003). Mimicry also increases an individual’s prosocial behavior toward other people in general and not only toward the mimicker (van Baaren, Holland, Kawakami, & van Knippenberg, 2004). Moreover, expectations of future interactions increase mimicry behavior (Lakin & Chartrand, 2003). This line of evidence supports the claim that both unintentional (automatic) and intentional mimicry facilitate and express social affiliation and that the process is bidirectional—mimicry facilitates affiliation and prosocial behavior, and affiliation goals increase mimicry (Lakin, Jefferis, Cheng, & Chartrand, 2003). Similarly, LaFrance (1979) demonstrated that the positive correlation between posture sharing and rapport persists across time. COLLABORATIVE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS In CVEs (Bailenson, Beall, & Blascovich, 2002; Slater, Sadagic, Usoh, & Schroeder, 2000; Zhang & Furnas, 2002), interactants in remote physical locations see the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of one another rendered onto digital avatars (representations of people in virtual reality; Bailenson & Blascovich, Address correspondence to Jeremy N. Bailenson, Department of Communication, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305; e-mail: ...

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...thy show this so-called chameleon effect to a greater extent. It has also been demonstrated that nonconscious behavioral mimicry increases affiliation, which serves to foster relationships with others=-=[16]-=-. Electrophysiological recordings in monkeys as well as neuroimaging experiments in humans have shown that the observation of actions performed by others activates cortical motor representations in th...

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...artrand, de Bouter, & van Knippenberg, 2003). In general, the relationship between interpersonal coordination or mimicry and being other-directed is usually seen as a positive bidirectional relation (=-=Lakin, Jefferis, Cheng, & Chartrand, 2003-=-). That is, such coordination is not only a concomitant of rapport but also causes the person being mimicked to be more helpful and generous to others (van Baaren, Holland, Kawakami, & van Knippenberg...

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...e has been emerging to suggest that subtle behavioral coordination is a fundamental aspect of interpersonal interaction (see Bernieri, 1988; Chartrand & Bargh, 1999; Chartrand, Maddux, & Lakin, 2005; =-=Lakin, Jefferis, Cheng, & Chartrand, 2003-=-). For example, when individuals shake their foot or touch their face during a social interaction unrelated to these body movements, the person with whom they are interacting also engages in footshaki...

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...basic mechanisms governing social behaviours that the psychologists have investigated for decades, such as the chameleon effect (mutual imitation of people aimed at showing liking or affiliation) [12]=-=[45]-=-, the interpersonal adaptation (mutual accommodation of behavioural patterns between interacting individuals) [33], the interactional synchrony (degree of coordination during interactions) [42], the p...

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... the lens of facial mimicry. Mimicry is usually defined as the tendency to imitate facially, vocally or posturally people with whom we are interacting (e.g., Hess et al., 1999). Mimicry is a pervasive behavior, which is found in children (Chisholm and Strayer, 1995; Haviland and Lelwica, 1987; Kagan et al., 1994; Reissland and Harris, 1991) as well as adults (Dimberg, 1982, 1986, 1990; Lundqvist and Dimberg, 1995; Ohman and Dimberg, 1978). Mimicry is generally considered to be an unconscious and automatic process that is difficult, if not impossible, to suppress (Dimberg et al., 2000, 2002). Lakin et al. (2003) posit that the function of behavioral mimicry has evolved from a communication role to a mechanism creating social coordination through affiliation between interaction partners* Corresponding author. E-mail address: ursula.hess@alum.dartmouth.org (U. Hess). 0301-0511/$ – see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.11.001and several studies confirm that mimicry improves the quality of interactions (e.g., Bernieri and Rosenthal, 1991; Chartrand and Bargh, 1999; LaFrance and Broadbent, 1976; Yabar and Hess, 2006). Since humans are a social species, soc...

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...ors emerge early in development, with preschoolers spontaneously engaging in positive self-presentation, prosocial lies, and negative emotion concealment Review Trends in Cognitive Sciences April 2012, Vol. 16, No. 4for politeness purposes [18–20]. Maintaining behaviors, far from being cold-hearted manipulations, often occur outside the individual’s conscious awareness. For instance, there is evidence that people unconsciously mimic others’ nonverbal manners and that they do so because perceived similarity is an important predictor of likeability, which can be exploited to enhance integration [21]. Consistent with this idea, more empathic individuals [22] and people scoring high in measures of social motivation [23] exhibit stronger mimicry (Box 1).Box 1. Social exclusion and isolation The adverse effects of social isolation on well-being are a natural consequence of the strength of social motivation. Economists and social psychologists have long emphasized that social bonds are indispensable for achieving happiness and epidemiologists have confirmed that lack of social support constitutes a major health risk, comparable in magnitude to well-established risk factors such as smoking and...