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Episodic simulation of future events: Concepts, data and applications
, 2008
"... This article focuses on the neural and cognitive processes that support imagining or simulating future events, a topic that has recently emerged in the forefront of cognitive neuroscience. We begin by considering concepts of simulation from a number of areas of psychology and cognitive neuroscience ..."
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Cited by 55 (10 self)
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This article focuses on the neural and cognitive processes that support imagining or simulating future events, a topic that has recently emerged in the forefront of cognitive neuroscience. We begin by considering concepts of simulation from a number of areas of psychology and cognitive neuroscience in order to place our use of the term in a broader context. We then review neuroimaging, neuropsychological, and cognitive studies that have examined future-event simulation and its relation to episodic memory. This research supports the idea that simulating possible future events depends on much of the same neural machinery, referred to here as a core network, as does remembering past events. After discussing several theoretical accounts of the data, we consider applications of work on episodic simulation for research concerning clinical populations suffering from anxiety or depression. Finally, we consider other aspects of future-oriented thinking that we think are related to episodic simulation, including planning, prediction, and remembering intentions. These processes together comprise what we have termed “the prospective brain, ” whose primary function is to use past experiences to anticipate future events. Key words: episodic memory; simulation of future events; neuroimaging; constructive memory;
Control of Cost in Prospective Memory: Evidence for Spontaneous Retrieval Processes
"... To examine the processes that support prospective remembering, previous research has often examined whether the presence of a prospective memory task slows overall responding on an ongoing task. Although slowed task performance suggests that monitoring is present, this method does not clearly establ ..."
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Cited by 7 (3 self)
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To examine the processes that support prospective remembering, previous research has often examined whether the presence of a prospective memory task slows overall responding on an ongoing task. Although slowed task performance suggests that monitoring is present, this method does not clearly establish whether monitoring is functionally related to prospective memory performance. According to the multiprocess theory (McDaniel & Einstein, 2000), monitoring should be necessary to prospective memory performance with nonfocal cues but not with focal cues. To test this hypothesis, we varied monitoring by presenting items that were related (or unrelated) to the prospective memory task proximal to target events. Notably, whereas monitoring proximal to target events led to a large increase in nonfocal prospective memory performance, focal prospective remembering was high in the absence of monitoring, and monitoring in this condition provided no additional benefits. These results suggest that when monitoring is absent, spontaneous retrieval processes can support focal prospective remembering.
Focal/nonfocal cue effects in prospective memory: monitoring difficulty or different retrieval processes
, 2010
"... We investigated whether focal/nonfocal effects (e.g., Einstein et al., 2005) in prospective memory (PM) are explained by cue differences in monitoring difficulty. In Experiment 1, we show that syllable cues (used in Einstein et al., 2005) are more difficult to monitor for than are word cues; however ..."
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Cited by 7 (4 self)
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We investigated whether focal/nonfocal effects (e.g., Einstein et al., 2005) in prospective memory (PM) are explained by cue differences in monitoring difficulty. In Experiment 1, we show that syllable cues (used in Einstein et al., 2005) are more difficult to monitor for than are word cues; however, initial-letter cues (in words) are similar in monitoring difficulty to word cues (Experiments 2a and 2b). Accordingly, in Experiments 3 and 4, we designated either an initial letter or a particular word as a PM cue in the context of a lexical decision task, a task that presumably directs attention to focal processing of words but not initial letters. We found that the nonfocal condition was more likely than the focal condition to produce costs to the lexical decision task (task interference). Furthermore, when task interference was minimal or absent, focal PM performance remained relatively high, whereas nonfocal PM performance was near floor (Experiment 4). Collectively, these results suggest that qualitatively different retrieval processes can support prospective remembering for focal versus nonfocal cues.
Fan effects in event-based prospective memory
- Memory
, 2006
"... Three experiments investigated whether event-based prospective memory was affected by the associative fan of the cues to be detected. The associative fan was operationally defined as the number of associates paired with event-based cues in a paired associate learning phase. Subsequent to the paired ..."
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Cited by 3 (1 self)
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Three experiments investigated whether event-based prospective memory was affected by the associative fan of the cues to be detected. The associative fan was operationally defined as the number of associates paired with event-based cues in a paired associate learning phase. Subsequent to the paired associate learning, participants were given a lexical decision task in which event-based cues were embedded. The results from Experiments 1 and 2 confirmed that a larger associative fan significantly reduced event-based cue detection. The third experiment confirmed that the absolute strength of an association does not affect performance, rather the number of associations does. As an ancillary issue, the authors tested whether cue detection was affected by the familiarity of the background words used in the lexical decision task. No consistent evidence for a discrepancy plus search model of prospective memory was found. Cues in our environment remind us of past experiences, with certain cues being more or less effective at doing so. For example, noticing a statue on a shelf may evoke a memory of a birthday party at which it was received as a gift. However, the human memory system does not
Transparent Meta-Analysis: Does Aging Spare Prospective Memory with Focal vs. Non-Focal Cues?
, 2010
"... Background: Prospective memory (ProM) is the ability to become aware of a previously-formed plan at the right time and place. For over twenty years, researchers have been debating whether prospective memory declines with aging or whether it is spared by aging and, most recently, whether aging spares ..."
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Background: Prospective memory (ProM) is the ability to become aware of a previously-formed plan at the right time and place. For over twenty years, researchers have been debating whether prospective memory declines with aging or whether it is spared by aging and, most recently, whether aging spares prospective memory with focal vs. non-focal cues. Two recent meta-analyses examining these claims did not include all relevant studies and ignored prevalent ceiling effects, age confounds, and did not distinguish between prospective memory subdomains (e.g., ProM proper, vigilance, habitual ProM) (see Uttl, 2008, PLoS ONE). The present meta-analysis focuses on the following questions: Does prospective memory decline with aging? Does prospective memory with focal vs. non-focal cues decline with aging? Does the size of age-related declines with focal vs. non-focal cues vary across ProM subdomains? And are age-related declines in ProM smaller than agerelated declines in retrospective memory? Methods and Findings: A meta-analysis of event-cued ProM using data visualization and modeling, robust count methods, and conventional meta-analysis techniques revealed that first, the size of age-related declines in ProM with both focal and non-focal cues are large. Second, age-related declines in ProM with focal cues are larger in ProM proper and smaller in vigilance. Third, age-related declines in ProM proper with focal cues are as large as age-related declines in recall measures of retrospective memory.
Spontaneous retrieval in prospective memory
- In
, 2007
"... O ur chapter, like others in this volume, focuses on episodic memory. Otherchapters have approached episodic memory as a process or system topreserve an individual’s mental record of his or her past. Here we take a broader view that episodic memory also allows people to mentally place themselves for ..."
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Cited by 2 (2 self)
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O ur chapter, like others in this volume, focuses on episodic memory. Otherchapters have approached episodic memory as a process or system topreserve an individual’s mental record of his or her past. Here we take a broader view that episodic memory also allows people to mentally place themselves forward in time. Tulving (2004) has termed this process proscopic chronesthesia. Proscopic chronesthesia, likely unique to humans, supports for-ward-looking activities, the anticipation of what we will be doing in the near and long term, what we are likely to feel in anticipated events, what we hope to accomplish, and the planning activities that accompany this future oriented behavior. Closely aligned with such mental time-travel is prospective memory, which is the focus of the present chapter. Prospective memory is memory for activities that we intend to perform in the future. More specifically, prospective memory refers to remembering to perform an intended action at an appropriate moment in the future. With even minimal thought, it is clear that everyday living is replete with prospective memory tasks. We need to remember to give colleagues messages, to pack a desired item in our work bag, to remember to pick up some grocery item on the way home from work, and to remember to attend scheduled appointments. For one of us, the last prospective memory challenge is especially salient because recently, at the time that a faculty meeting was scheduled, MAM forgot about the meeting (his colleagues were much amused that a prospective memory researcher would forget the meeting). Prospective memory is also needed for handling health-related needs such as remembering to exercise, monitor various bodily indices like blood pressure or blood-sugar levels, and to take medication. The latter is increasingly frequent as the Center for Disease Control and Prevention reports that 44 % of Americans
Revealing List-Level Control in the Stroop Task by Uncovering Its Benefits and a Cost
"... Interference is reduced in mostly incongruent relative to mostly congruent lists. Classic accounts of this list-wide proportion congruence effect assume that list-level control processes strategically modulate word reading. Contemporary accounts posit that reliance on the word is modulated poststimu ..."
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Interference is reduced in mostly incongruent relative to mostly congruent lists. Classic accounts of this list-wide proportion congruence effect assume that list-level control processes strategically modulate word reading. Contemporary accounts posit that reliance on the word is modulated poststimulus onset by item-specific information (e.g., proportion congruency of the word). To adjudicate between these accounts, we used novel designs featuring neutral trials. In two experiments, we showed that the list-wide proportion congruence effect is accompanied by a change in neutral trial color-naming performance. Because neutral words have no item-specific bias, this pattern can be attributed to list-level control. Additionally, we showed that list-level attenuation of word reading led to a cost to performance on a secondary prospective memory task but only when that task required processing of the irrelevant, neutral word. These findings indicate that the list-wide proportion congruence effect at least partially reflects list-level control and challenge purely item-specific accounts of this effect.
Prospective memory and aging: preserved spontaneous retrieval, but impaired deactivation, in older adults
"... Abstract Prospective remembering is partially supported by cue-driven spontaneous retrieval processes. We investi-gated spontaneous retrieval processes in younger and older adults by presenting prospective memory target cues during a lexical decision task following instructions that the prospective ..."
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Abstract Prospective remembering is partially supported by cue-driven spontaneous retrieval processes. We investi-gated spontaneous retrieval processes in younger and older adults by presenting prospective memory target cues during a lexical decision task following instructions that the prospective memory task was finished. Spontaneous re-trieval was inferred from slowed lexical decision responses to target cues (i.e., intention interference). When the intention was finished, younger adults efficiently deacti-vated their intention, but the older adults continued to retrieve their intentions. Levels of inhibitory functioning were negatively associated with intention interference in the older adult group, but not in the younger adult group. These results indicate that normal aging might not compromise spontaneous retrieval processes but that the ability to deactivate completed intentions is impaired.
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"... The self is a central construct that colors the way people per-ceive, think, and act (Banaji & Prentice, 1994; Baumeister, 1998). A wide assortment of psychological phenomena, from the fundamental attribution error (Ross, 1977) to self-serving biases (Bernstein, Stephan, & Davis, 1979), are ..."
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The self is a central construct that colors the way people per-ceive, think, and act (Banaji & Prentice, 1994; Baumeister, 1998). A wide assortment of psychological phenomena, from the fundamental attribution error (Ross, 1977) to self-serving biases (Bernstein, Stephan, & Davis, 1979), are variations on the basic theme that self-relevant information is processed differently than other types of social information. This article examines the boundary conditions and ecological validity of another such phenomenon—the self-reference effect in memory. The self-reference effect in memory refers to the finding that materials are remembered better if they have been encoded in a self-relevant way than if they have not (Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker, 1977). In the standard self-reference paradigm, partici-pants are exposed to personality traits (e.g., honest, shy). One group is asked to process the traits in self-relevant ways (“Does the word describe you?”). Other groups are asked to process the material in ways relevant to other people, semanti-cally, phonemically, or structurally. Numerous studies have established that self-referent encoding has an advantage over other types of encoding, with an average effect size of 0.50 (Symons & Johnson, 1997). In addition to personality traits, the self-relevance effect has been shown in memory for nouns
