Since the early 1960’s, researchers have built a number of programming languages and environments with the intention of making programming accessible to a larger number of people. This article presents a taxonomy of languages and environments designed to make programming more accessible to novice programmers of all ages. The systems are organized by their primary goal, either to teach programming or to use programming to empower their users, and then, by each system’s authors ’ approach, to making learning to program easier for novice programmers. The article explains all categories in the taxonomy, provides a brief description of the systems in each category, and suggests some avenues for future work in novice programming environments and languages.

This paper introduces a new framework for thinking about tangible interfaces in education, with specific focus on abstract problem domains. Manipulatives are physical objects specifically designed to foster learning. We offer a new classification of Manipulatives: “Froebel-inspired Manipulatives ” (FiMs) and “Montessori-inspired Manipulatives ” (MiMs). We argue that FiMs are design materials, fostering modeling of real-world structures. We show that our classification extends to computationally enhanced versions of manipulatives. We present Digital MiMs – computationally enhanced building blocks. We describe two prototypical members of the Digital MiMs class: FlowBlocks and SystemBlocks, physical, modular interactive systems that serve as generalpurpose modeling and simulation tools for dynamic behavior. We present findings from qualitative studies, and conclude that digital MiMs are accessible to young children, engaging, and encourage learning of abstract structures of dynamic behavior through an iterative process of hands-on modeling, simulating, and analogizing. Authors Keywords TUI, Digital manipulatives, Simulation, Education, Toys. ACM Classification H5.2. Information interfaces and presentation (e.g., HCI): User Interfaces. Figure 1: A “normal distribution ” simulation

Assessments of spatial, constructional ability are used widely in cognitive research and in clinical diagnosis of disease or injury. Some believe that three-dimensional (3D) forms of these assessments would be particularly sensitive, but difficulties with consistency in administration and scoring have limited their use. We describe Cognitive Cubes, a novel computerized tool for 3D constructional assessment that increases consistency and promises improvements in flexibility, reliability, sensitivity and control. Cognitive Cubes makes use of ActiveCube, a novel tangible user interface for describing 3D shape. In testing, Cognitive Cubes was sensitive to differences in cognitive ability and task, and correlated well to a standard paper-and-pencil 3D spatial assessment.

In order to effectively support collaboration it is important that computer technology seamlessly support users' natural interactions instead of inhibiting or constraining the collaborative process. The research presented in this paper examines the human-human component of computer supported cooperative work and how the design of technology can impact how people work together. In particular, this study examined children ' s natural interactions when working in a physical medium compared to two computer-based environments (a traditional desktop computer and a system augmented to provide each user with a mouse and a cursor). Results of this research demonstrate that given the opportunity, children will take advantage of the ability to interact concurrently. In addition, users' verbal interactions and performance can be constrained when they are forced to interact sequentially, as in the traditional computer setup. Supporting concurrent interactions with multiple input devices is a first step towards developing effective collaborative environments that support users' natural collaborative interactions. Key words: Computer supported cooperative work (CSCW), computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL), single display groupware (SDG), user interfaces, multiple mice, and synchronous interaction. 1

Developing applications to support collaboration by two or more users involves special challenges. An application designer should anticipate the interaction between the user and the computer, as well as the interactions between the users. Secondly, there is a lack of system support for development of software that accepts simultaneous input from multiple users. The Colt system is designed to address both of these issues. The design of the Colt system is motivated by a model of computer-supported collaboration that measures communication and cooperation between the users during an activity. We present a definition and several examples of "Cooperatively Controlled Objects" that have been designed to support cooperative interactions. A user study is presented that illustrates the use of ...

Leogo is a novel programming environment supporting an "equal opportunity" user interface which allows users to express their programming tasks through any mixture of three concurrently active programming paradigms: by direct-manipulation using `programming by demonstration'; by clicking buttons and dragging sliders in an iconic language; and by typing commands in a normal text-based language. Equal opportunity ensures that the e#ects of any interface action are simultaneously displayed across each of the three paradigms---input expressions in one paradigm cause output of equivalent expressions in the other two paradigms. Leogo is designed to promote programming skills in primary and junior schools, but the interface properties it demonstrates are applicable to a wide range of novel programming environments. Leogo's motivation, design, development, and preliminary usability study are described. 2 1 Introduction Programming skills are becoming increasingly important at work...

We reflect upon the process of developing a tangible space for children’s collaborative construction of screenbased systems. As in all design work, the design process involved continual refinements of initial ideas and their practical realisation. We discuss how some widely held qualities often put forward with tangible interfaces were given up in favour of reaching overall goals of interaction. In particular our design involved a shift from a focus on persistent representation and readability of tangible code structures, to instead focus on achieving reusability of programming resources. On a general level, our results illustrate a view on tangibles as resources for action instead of only as alternative forms of data representation. Importantly, this view includes action directed towards the computer as well as off-line socially oriented action conducted with the tangible artefacts. Author Keywords Tangible programming, TUI, embodied interaction

This paper describes a new technique for implementing educational programming languages using tangible interface technology. It emphasizes the use of inexpensive and durable parts with no embedded electronics or power supplies. Students create programs in offline settings—on their desks or on the floor—and use a portable scanning station to compile their code. We argue that languages created with this approach offer an appealing and practical alternative to text-based and visual languages for classroom use. In this paper we discuss the motivations for our project and describe the design and implementation of two tangible programming languages. We also describe an initial case study with children and outline future research goals. Author Keywords Tangible UIs, education, children, programming languages

Abstract. This paper introduces a novel way to allow non-expert users to create smart surroundings. Non-smart everyday objects such as furniture and appliances found in homes and offices can be converted to smart ones by attaching computers, sensors, and devices. In this way, non-smart components that form non-smart objects are made smart in advance. For our first prototype, we have developed u-Texture, a self-organizable universal panel that works as a building block. The u-Texture can change its own behavior autonomously through recognition of its location, its inclination, and surrounding environment by assembling these factors physically. We have demonstrated several applications to confirm that u-Textures can create smart surroundings easily without expert users. 1

Much of the work done in the field of tangible interaction has focused on creating tools for learning; however, in many cases, little evidence has been provided that tangible interfaces offer educational benefits compared to more conventional interaction techniques. In this paper, we present a study comparing the use of a tangible and a graphical interface as part of an interactive computer programming and robotics exhibit that we designed for the Boston Museum of Science. In this study, we have collected observations of 260 museum visitors and conducted interviews with 13 family groups. Our results show that visitors found the tangible and the graphical systems equally easy to understand. However, with the tangible interface, visitors were significantly more likely to try the exhibit and significantly more likely to actively participate in groups. In turn, we show that regardless of the condition, involving multiple active participants leads to significantly longer interaction times. Finally, we examine the role of children and adults in each condition and present evidence that children are more actively involved in the tangible condition, an effect that seems to be especially strong for girls. ACM Classification Keywords H5.m. Information interfaces and presentation (e.g., HCI):