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Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit
- JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
, 1997
"... The theoretical distinction between goal intentions ("I intend to achieve-c") and implementation intentions ("I intend to perform goal-directed behavior y when I encounter situation z " ; P. M. Gollwitzer, 1993) is explored by assessing the completion rate of various goal project ..."
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Cited by 192 (34 self)
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The theoretical distinction between goal intentions ("I intend to achieve-c") and implementation intentions ("I intend to perform goal-directed behavior y when I encounter situation z " ; P. M. Gollwitzer, 1993) is explored by assessing the completion rate of various goal projects. In correla-tional Study 1, difficult goal intentions were completed about 3 times more often when participants had furnished them with implementation intentions. In experimental Study 2, all participants were assigned the same difficult goal intention, and half were instructed to form implementation intentions. The beneficial effects of implementation intentions paralleled diose of Study 1. In experimental Study 3, implementation intentions were observed to facilitate the immediate initiation of goal-directed action when the intended opportunity was encountered. Implementation intentions are inter-preted to be powerful self-regulatory tools for overcoming the typical obstacles associated with the initiation of goal-directed actions.
Place-Its: A Study of Location-Based Reminders on Mobile Phones
- In Ubicomp
, 2005
"... Abstract. Context-awareness can improve the usefulness of automated reminders. However, context-aware reminder applications have yet to be evaluated throughout a person’s daily life. Mobile phones provide a potentially convenient and truly ubiquitous platform for the detection of personal context su ..."
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Cited by 70 (3 self)
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Abstract. Context-awareness can improve the usefulness of automated reminders. However, context-aware reminder applications have yet to be evaluated throughout a person’s daily life. Mobile phones provide a potentially convenient and truly ubiquitous platform for the detection of personal context such as location, as well as the delivery of reminders. We designed Place-Its, a location-based reminder application that runs on mobile phones, to study people using location-aware reminders throughout their daily lives. We describe the design of Place-Its and a two-week exploratory user study. The study reveals that location-based reminders are useful, in large part because people use location in nuanced ways. 1
Event-based prospective memory and executive control of working memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 1998
"... In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding task ..."
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Cited by 64 (15 self)
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In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding tasks from the literature on executive control produced decrements in prospective memory. In Experiment 3, attention was divided by different loads of articulatory suppression that did not ultimately lead to decrements in prospective memory. A high-load manipulation of a visuospatial task requiring performance monitoring resulted in worse prospective memory in Experiment 4, whereas in Experiment 5 a visuospatial task with little monitoring did not. Results are discussed in terms of executive functions, such as planning and monitoring, that appear to be critical to successful event-based prospective memory. Successfully completing an intended action in the future depends on a type of remembering that has been labeled prospective memory. Thus, successful prospective memory requires remembering to remember. As a cognitive con-struct, however, prospective memory is less monolithic than
Activation of completed, uncompleted, and partially completed intentions
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 1998
"... The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl (1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect ..."
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Cited by 60 (9 self)
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The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl (1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect. We used a lexical-decision task to replicate that shorter latencies were associated with uncompleted intentions as compared with neutral materials (Experiments 1 and 3). Experiments 2-4, however, demonstrated that latencies were longer for completed scripts as compared with neutral materials. In Experiment 4, shorter latencies were also obtained for partially completed scripts. The results are discussed in terms of the activation and inhibition that may guide behavior, as well as how these results may inform theories of prospective memory. Prospective memory is a complex form of human memory that functions in service of completing temporarily postponed intentions. Published research reports on the topic are not numerous, but the field is growing (cf. Roediger, 1996). One distinction that is often made in this literature is
Episodic simulation of future events: Concepts, data and applications
, 2008
"... This article focuses on the neural and cognitive processes that support imagining or simulating future events, a topic that has recently emerged in the forefront of cognitive neuroscience. We begin by considering concepts of simulation from a number of areas of psychology and cognitive neuroscience ..."
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Cited by 55 (10 self)
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This article focuses on the neural and cognitive processes that support imagining or simulating future events, a topic that has recently emerged in the forefront of cognitive neuroscience. We begin by considering concepts of simulation from a number of areas of psychology and cognitive neuroscience in order to place our use of the term in a broader context. We then review neuroimaging, neuropsychological, and cognitive studies that have examined future-event simulation and its relation to episodic memory. This research supports the idea that simulating possible future events depends on much of the same neural machinery, referred to here as a core network, as does remembering past events. After discussing several theoretical accounts of the data, we consider applications of work on episodic simulation for research concerning clinical populations suffering from anxiety or depression. Finally, we consider other aspects of future-oriented thinking that we think are related to episodic simulation, including planning, prediction, and remembering intentions. These processes together comprise what we have termed “the prospective brain, ” whose primary function is to use past experiences to anticipate future events. Key words: episodic memory; simulation of future events; neuroimaging; constructive memory;
A meta-analytic review of prospective memory and aging
- Psychology and Aging
, 2004
"... A meta-analysis of prospective memory (PM) studies revealed that in laboratory settings younger participants outperform older participants on tests of both time- and event-based PM (rs ��.39 and �.34, respectively). Event-based PM tasks that impose higher levels of controlled strategic demand are as ..."
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Cited by 47 (1 self)
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A meta-analysis of prospective memory (PM) studies revealed that in laboratory settings younger participants outperform older participants on tests of both time- and event-based PM (rs ��.39 and �.34, respectively). Event-based PM tasks that impose higher levels of controlled strategic demand are associated with significantly larger age effects than event-based PM tasks that are supported by relatively more automatic processes (rs ��.40 vs. �.14, respectively). However, contrary to the prevailing view in the literature, retrospective memory as measured by free recall is associated with significantly greater age-related decline (r � –.52) than PM, and older participants perform substantially better than their younger counterparts in naturalistic PM studies (rs �.35 and.52 for event- and time-based PM, respectively). Much research on cognitive aging has focused on retrospective memory, or recollection of past events (for a review, see Light, 1991), and almost invariably it has been reported that substantial deficits in this aspect of cognition are associated with normal aging. However, interest has increasingly shifted to investigating prospective memory (PM), that is, memory for future intentions. Relative to retrospective memory, PM is believed to be more dependent on internal control mechanisms (Craik, 1983, 1986). This is because, according to Craik’s (1986) theoretical model, the act of recollection is dependent on reconstructing events in memory, and it is suggested that this process must be guided either by external cues, or in their absence, self-initiated cues. In retrospective memory tasks explicit prompts to recall are provided by the experimenter, whereas in PM tasks the cue is not an explicit request for action, but instead it requires either interpretation of a cue or an internal impetus. It has often been argued that this requirement for self-initiated remembering means that PM tasks should be more susceptible to the effects of adult aging than retrospective memory tasks (e.g., Craik, 1986; Maylor, 1995;
Multiple Processes in Prospective Memory Retrieval: Factors Determining Monitoring versus Spontaneous Retrieval
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 2005
"... Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether perfo ..."
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Cited by 45 (7 self)
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Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether performing a prospective memory task produced costs on the speed of performing the ongoing task. In Experiment 5, the authors directly tested for the existence of spontaneous retrieval. The results supported the multi-process theory (M. A. McDaniel & G. O. Einstein, 2000) predictions that (a) spontaneous retrieval can occur and can support good prospective memory and (b) depending on task demands and individual differences, people rely to different degrees on monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval for prospective remembering.
Effect of age on event-based and time-based prospective memory
- Psychology of Aging
, 1997
"... The magnitude of age differences on event- and time-based prospective memory tasks was investigated in 2 experiments. Participants performed a working memory task and were also required to perform either an event- or time-based prospective action. Control participants performed either the working me ..."
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Cited by 37 (1 self)
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The magnitude of age differences on event- and time-based prospective memory tasks was investigated in 2 experiments. Participants performed a working memory task and were also required to perform either an event- or time-based prospective action. Control participants performed either the working memory task only or the prospective memory task only. Results yielded age differences on both prospective tasks. The age effect was particularly marked on the time-based task. Performance of the event-based prospective task, however, had a higher cost to performance on the concurrent working memory task than the time-based task did, suggesting that event-based responding has a substantial attentional requirement. The older adults also made a significant number of time-monitor-ing errors when time monitoring was their sole task. This suggests that some time-based prospective memory deficits in older adults are due to a fundamental deficit in time monitoring rather than to prospective memory. Recently there has been a great deal of interest in the study of prospective memory in younger and older adults (Brandimonte, Einstein, & McDaniel, 1996). Prospective memory refers to the memory required to carry out planned actions at the appropriate
Interference to ongoing activities covaries with the characteristics of an event-based intention
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2003
"... Previous studies of event-based prospective memory have demonstrated that the character of an ongoing task can affect cue detection. By contrast, this study demonstrated that there is a reciprocal relationship insofar as cue-verification and response-retrieval processes interfered with making a resp ..."
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Cited by 30 (9 self)
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Previous studies of event-based prospective memory have demonstrated that the character of an ongoing task can affect cue detection. By contrast, this study demonstrated that there is a reciprocal relationship insofar as cue-verification and response-retrieval processes interfered with making a response in the ongoing task. The amount of interference was determined by the type of intention, which was manip-ulated to affect the complexity of verification and retrospective response retrieval. These relationships were true even when the interference caused by cue detection was separated from a more general effect to ongoing-task performance caused by shifts in attentional allocation policies. The results have theoretical implications for models that attempt to specify the cognitive microstructure of event-based prospective memory. People fulfill a variety of intentions in the course of everyday life. Some examples of different types of prospective-memory tasks include remembering to make a phone call after a certain duration has elapsed (a time-based task), performing an activity right after finishing a different one (an activity-based task), deliv-ering a message to an acquaintance (an event-based task), attend-ing a seminar on changes in health benefits (a novel task), taking vitamins or medication (a habitual intention), and so forth (Bran-dimonte, Einstein, & McDaniel, 1996). The particular cuing con-ditions associated with these different intentions vary along many dimensions, such as the amount of self-initiated processing that is
The dynamics of intention retrieval and coordination of action in event-based prospective memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2002
"... Event-based prospective memory requires responding to cues in the environment that are associated with a previously established intention. Some researchers believe that intentions reside in memory with an above baseline level of activation, a phenomenon called the intention superiority effect. The a ..."
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Cited by 30 (14 self)
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Event-based prospective memory requires responding to cues in the environment that are associated with a previously established intention. Some researchers believe that intentions reside in memory with an above baseline level of activation, a phenomenon called the intention superiority effect. The authors of this study predicted that intention superiority would be masked by additional cognitive processes associated with successful event-based prospective memory. These additional processes include noticing the cue, retrieving the intention, and coordinating intention execution with the ongoing activity. In 3 experiments, intention superiority was demonstrated by faster latencies to the ongoing activity on failed prospective trials and the existence of the additional processes was demonstrated by slower latencies on successful trials. This study demonstrates the importance of investigating the microstructure of the cognitive components involved with processing and responding to an event-based prospective memory cue. In the course of everyday life people often encounter cues in their environment that cause them to recollect events that occurred in the past. For example, a sheaf of papers collected at a conference may evoke memories of a recent trip, or the sight of a
