Results 1 - 10
of
221
Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders
- Psychological Review
, 2002
"... A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that f ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 294 (4 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles. Leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in cor-porate, political, military, and other sectors of society. Although women have gained increased access to supervisory and middle management positions, they remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives. To explain this phenomenon, public and scientific discussion has centered on the idea of a “glass ceiling”—a barrier of prejudice and discrimination that excludes women from higher level leadership positions (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1987). To further this discussion, we advance a theory of prejudice toward female lead-ers and test the theory in relation to available empirical research. This integrative theory builds on social psychologists ’ tradition of studying prejudice and stereotyping and industrial–organizational psychologists ’ tradition of studying perceptions of managerial roles. The popularity of the glass ceiling concept may stem from the rarity of women in major leadership posts, despite the presence of equality or near equality of the sexes on many other indicators. A number of statistics thus suggest equality: In the United States, women make up 46 % of all workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001b) and 45 % of those in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001a); women possess 51 % of bachelor’s degrees and 45 % of all
Models of the self: Self-construals and gender
- Psychological Bulletin
, 1997
"... The authors first describe individual differences in the structure of the self. In the independent self-construal, representations of others are separate from the self. In the interdependent self-construal, others are considered part of the self (H. Markus & S. Kitayama, 1991). In general, men i ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 262 (3 self)
- Add to MetaCart
The authors first describe individual differences in the structure of the self. In the independent self-construal, representations of others are separate from the self. In the interdependent self-construal, others are considered part of the self (H. Markus & S. Kitayama, 1991). In general, men in the United States are thought to construct and maintain an independent self-construal, whereas women are thought to construct and maintain an interdependent self-construal. The authors review the psychological literature to demonstrate that many gender differences in cognition, motivation, emo-tion, and social behavior may be explained in terms of men's and women's different self-construals. Recognition of the interdependent self-construal as a possible alternative conception of the self may stimulate new investigations into the ways the self influences a person's thinking, feeling, and behaving. Many international travelers acquire new and different per-spectives on their home country as a result of their journeys. Likewise, cross-cultural comparisons can shed new light on prevailing psychological theories, assumptions, beliefs, and practices in a particular society. For example, cross-cultural
The gender similarities hypothesis
- American Psychologist
, 2005
"... The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variab ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 192 (3 self)
- Add to MetaCart
The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. Results from a review of 46 metaanalyses support the gender similarities hypothesis. Gender differences can vary substantially in magnitude at different ages and depend on the context in which measurement occurs. Overinflated claims of gender differences carry substantial costs in areas such as the workplace and relationships.
The evolutionary origins of leadership and followership
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
, 2006
"... Drawing upon evolutionary logic, leadership is reconceptualized in terms of the out-come of strategic interactions among individuals who are following different, yet complementary decision rules to solve recurrent coordination problems. This article uses the vast psychological literature on leadersh ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 60 (9 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
Drawing upon evolutionary logic, leadership is reconceptualized in terms of the out-come of strategic interactions among individuals who are following different, yet complementary decision rules to solve recurrent coordination problems. This article uses the vast psychological literature on leadership as a database to test several evo-lutionary hypotheses about the origins of leadership and followership in humans. As expected, leadership correlates with initiative taking, trait measures of intelligence, specific task competencies, and several indicators of generosity. The review finds no link between leadership and dominance. The evolutionary analysis accounts for reli-able age, health, and sex differences in leadership emergence. In general, evolutionary theory provides a useful, integrative framework for studying leader-follower relationships and generates various novel research hypotheses. In his influential, award-winning book Leadership the political scientist James McGregor Burns wrote that “leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth ” (1978, p. 2). There is little argument about the first claim. History is littered with examples of individuals who take charge of a group and lead it, often against the odds, to safety, vic-tory, or prosperity. Examples are military leaders like Alexander the Great, Nelson, and Patton, political leaders like Roosevelt, Nasser, and Mandela, revolu-tionaries like Mao, Ghandi, and Rosa Luxembourg, business leaders like Ford, Gates, and Branson, and re-ligious leaders like Jesus, Mohammed, and Buddha. Anthropological evidence suggests that there are no known human societies without some form of leader-ship (Boehm, 1999; Diamond, 1997; Lewis, 1974). So-cial psychological research reveals that a leader-fol-lower structure emerges spontaneously even when groups set out to be leaderless (Bales, 1951; Bass, 1954). It seems that whenever a group of people come together, a leader-follower relationship naturally de-velops. This has led various experts to conclude that leadership is a universal human behavior (Bass, 1990; Brown, 1991; Hollander, 1985). What about Burns ’ second claim? Psychological re-search on leadership contributes a great deal to our un-derstanding of leadership in groups. The latest edition
POWER, APPROACH, AND INHIBITION
"... This paper examines how power influences human behavior. We consider evidence from diverse literatures relating elevated power to approach and reduced power to inhibition. Specifically, power is associated with (a) positive affect, (b) attention to rewards and to features of others that satisfy pers ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 49 (7 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
This paper examines how power influences human behavior. We consider evidence from diverse literatures relating elevated power to approach and reduced power to inhibition. Specifically, power is associated with (a) positive affect, (b) attention to rewards and to features of others that satisfy personal goals, (c) automatic information processing and snap judgments, and (d) disinhibited social behavior. In contrast, reduced power is associated with (a) negative affect, (b) attention to threat and punishment, to others’ interests, and to those features of the self that are relevant to others ’ goals, (c) controlled information processing and deliberative reasoning, and (d) inhibited social behavior. The potential moderators and consequences of these power-related behavioral patterns are discussed. Social Power 3 Power, Approach, and Inhibition The fundamental concept in social science is Power, in the same sense that Energy is the fundamental concept in physics... The laws of social dynamics are laws which can only be stated in terms of power (Russell, 1938, p. 10) What do exhilaration, stereotyping, and poor table manners have in common? Or embarrassment, the advantage younger siblings enjoy over older ones in understanding others ’ mental states, and the complexity of Supreme Court justices ’ decisions? Our answer is simple: power. Power is a basic force in social relationships (Fiske, 1993;
Theories of gender in organizations: A new approach to organizational analysis and change
- for Gender in Organizations, Simmons School of Management, Working Paper 8
"... *Order of authorship is alphabetical. This paper was produced in full collaboration. ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 38 (0 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
*Order of authorship is alphabetical. This paper was produced in full collaboration.
Same behavior, different consequences: Reactions to men’s and women’s altruistic citizenship behavior
- Journal of Applied Psychology
, 2005
"... In 2 experimental studies, the authors hypothesized that the performance of altruistic citizenship behavior in a work setting would enhance the favorability of men’s (but not women’s) evaluations and recom-mendations, whereas the withholding of altruistic citizenship behavior would diminish the favo ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 26 (0 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
In 2 experimental studies, the authors hypothesized that the performance of altruistic citizenship behavior in a work setting would enhance the favorability of men’s (but not women’s) evaluations and recom-mendations, whereas the withholding of altruistic citizenship behavior would diminish the favorability of women’s (but not men’s) evaluations and recommendations. Results supported the authors ’ predictions. Together with the results of a 3rd study demonstrating that work-related altruism is thought to be less optional for women than for men, these results suggest that gender-stereotypic prescriptions regarding how men and women should behave result in different evaluative reactions to the same altruistic behavior, depending on the performer’s sex. Stereotypes about women are prescriptive as well as descriptive. Not only do they specify what women are like, but they also dictate norms about how women should behave (Burgess & Borgida, 1999; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heilman, 2001). The studies reported here examine how these gender role prescriptions can affect reac-tions to women as compared with reactions to men in work settings. Our particular focus is on altruistic citizenship behavior.
Task cues, dominance cues, and influence in task groups
- Journal of Applied Psychology
, 1993
"... All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 24 (2 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.
Status and Distrust: The Relevance of Inequality and Betrayal Aversion
- Journal of Economic Psychology
, 2007
"... Trust involves a willingness to accept vulnerability, comprised of the risk of being worse off than by not trusting, the risk of being worse off than the trusted party (disadvantageous inequality), and the risk of being betrayed by the trusted party. We examine how people’s status, focusing on sex, ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 21 (0 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
Trust involves a willingness to accept vulnerability, comprised of the risk of being worse off than by not trusting, the risk of being worse off than the trusted party (disadvantageous inequality), and the risk of being betrayed by the trusted party. We examine how people’s status, focusing on sex, race, age and religion, affects their willingness to accept these three risks. We experimentally measure people’s willingness to accept risk in a Decision Problem, a Risky Dictator Game, and a Trust Game, and compare responses across games. Groups typically considered having lower status in the US—women, minorities, younger people and non-Protestants—are averse to disadvantageous inequality while higher status groups—men, Caucasians, older people and Protestants—dislike being betrayed.
Smiles, speech, and body posture. How women and men display sociometric status and power
- Journal of Nonverbal Behavior
, 1998
"... ABSTRACT: This study found that power and status have different effects on nonverbal behavior. Participants lived together for a term in ten member groups (50 women, 29 men) and rated their housemates on characteristics related to power (toughness and leadership) and sociometric status (popularity ..."
Abstract
-
Cited by 20 (0 self)
- Add to MetaCart
(Show Context)
ABSTRACT: This study found that power and status have different effects on nonverbal behavior. Participants lived together for a term in ten member groups (50 women, 29 men) and rated their housemates on characteristics related to power (toughness and leadership) and sociometric status (popularity and being wellknown). Smiling, arm and leg position, and total talking time were recorded in group discussions, one with housemates only and one with strangers included. Power, but not sociometric status, was associated with open-body postures in women and with frequency of talking in women and men. Smiling was unrelated to power and was positively correlated with sociometric status. Male body posture was more open, but women and men did not differ in frequency of talking or smiling.
