I analyze the salient features of networks and point out the similarities between the economic structure of networks and the structure of vertically related industries. The analysis focuses on positive consumption and production externalities, commonly called network externalities. I discuss their sources and their effects on pricing and market structure. I distinguish between results that do not depend on the underlying industry microstructure (the 'macro' approach) and those that do (the 'micro' approach). I analyze the issues of compatibility, coordination to technical standards, interconnection and interoperability, and their effects on pricing and quality of services and on the value of network links in various ownership structures. I also briefly discuss the issue of interconnection fees for bottleneck facilities.

We study the strategy of bundling a large number of information goods, such as those increasingly available on the Internet, and selling them for a fixed price. We analyze the optimal bundling strategies for a multiproduct monopolist, and we find that bundling very large numbers of unrelated information goods can be surprisingly profitable. The reason is that the law of large numbers makes it much easier to predict consumers ’ valuations for a bundle of goods than their valuations for the individual goods when sold separately. As a result, this “predictive value of bundling ” makes it possible to achieve greater sales, greater economic efficiency, and greater profits per good from a bundle of information goods than can be attained when the same goods are sold separately. Our main results do not extend to most physical goods, as the marginal costs of production for goods not used by the buyer typically negate any benefits from the predictive value of large-scale bundling. While determining optimal bundling strategies for more than two goods is a notoriously difficult problem, we use statistical techniques to provide strong asymptotic results and bounds on profits for bundles of any arbitrary size. We show how our model can be used to analyze the bundling of complements and substitutes, bundling in the presence of budget

In this paper we examine the dynamic resolution of technological adoption in \hardware/software" systems. We are interested in determining to what extent software availability a®ects hardware sales and/or vice-versa. We ¯st develop a dynamic model for estimating demand when costs (and hence prices) are declining over time. We then estimate it empirically for the case of compact disc players. We ¯nd that there is \two-way " feedback between hardware and software for compact disc players. The result that the availability of compatible software (the CDs) plays a signi¯cant role in determining the adoption of compact disc players is likely due in part to the fact that compact disc players were not compatible with any existing audio standard.

We discuss the incentive of an exclusive holder of a technology to share it with competitors in a market with network externalities. We assume that high expected sales increase the willingness to pay for the good. This is named the 'network effect'. At a stable fulfilled expectations equilibrium, where the actual sales are equal to the expected ones, it is shown that. if the network effect is sufficiently strong, a quantity leader has an incentive to invite entry and license his technology without charge. If the quantity leader has the opportunity to use lump sum license fees, he will invite a larger number of competitors. If no lump sum fees are allowed, the leader will charge a decreasing fee in the intensity of the network externality and will invite entry. In markets with very strong network externalities. the leader pays a subsidy to the invited followers. We also show that the results hold under uncertainty, and when the post-entry competition is Cournot.

Network goods exhibit positive consumption externalities, commonly known as "network externalities." In markets, this fact can give rise to the existence of a critical mass point, that is, a minimum network size that can be sustained in equilibrium, given the cost and market structure of the industry. In this paper, we describe the conditions under which a critical mass point exists for a network good. We also characterize the existence of critical mass points under various market structures. Surprisingly, neither existence nor the size of the minimum feasible network depends on market structure. Thus, even though a monopolist enjoys an additional degree of freedom through its influence over expectations, and even though monopolistic and oligopolistic markets will in general provide a smaller sized network than perfect competition, the critical mass point is nonetheless the same. We extend these results by making the model dynamic and by generalizing it to allow durable goods.

Despite its power as a transactions network, scant attention has been given to incorporating an electronic call into a major market center such as the NYSE or Nasdaq. An electronic call clears the markets for all assets at predetermined points in time. By bunching many transactions together, a call market increases liquidity, thereby decreasing transaction costs for public participants. After describing alternative call market structures and their attributes, we propose that an open book electronic call be held three times during the trading day: at the open, at 12:00 noon, and at the close. We discuss the impact of this innovation on an array of issues, including order flow and handling, information revelation, and market transparency. We also discuss the proposed changes from the perspectives of investors, listed companies, exchanges, brokers, and

This paper introduces the concept of netchain analysis. A netchain is a set of networks comprised of horizontal ties between firms within a particular industry or group, which are sequentially arranged based on vertical ties between firms in different layers. Netchain analysis interprets supply chain and network perspectives on inter-organizational collaboration with particular emphasis on the value creating and coordination mechanism sources. We posit that sources of value and coordination mechanisms correspond to particular and distinct types of interdependencies: pooled, sequential, and reciprocal. It is further argued that the recognition and accounting of these simultaneous interdependencies is crucial for a more advanced understanding of complex inter-organizational relations. The paper concludes with an analysis of a set of netchain configuration examples, including buyer-supplier relationships, information technology induced inter-organization collaborations, and the introduction of the “macrohierarchy” organization structure. Key words Network, supply chain, value chain, interdependence, cooperative strategy. 1 We thank the h elpful comments by two anonymous referees. All remaining errors and omissions are our own. 1.

This paper formalizes the relation between comparative statics and the out-of-equilibrium explanation for how a system evolves after a change in parameters. The paper has two main results. First, an increase in an exogenous parameter sets o# learning dynamics that involve larger values of the endogenous variables. Second, equilibrium selections that are not monotone increasing in the exogenous variables must be predicting unstable equilibria. Moreover, under some conditions monotone comparative statics and stability are equivalent. JEL Classification: C61, C62, C72, C73 Keywords: Monotone comparative statics, supermodularity, strategic complements, learning, correspondence principle. # Discussions with Ilya Segal and Chris Shannon were very important for this work, I am very grateful for all their help. For comments and advice, I also thank Robert Anderson, Juan Dubra, Nestor Gandelman, Ernesto Lopez Cordova, Marcelo Moreira, Charles Pugh, Matthew Rabin, Tarun Sabarwal and Miguel Villa...

This paper discusses arguments for and against introducing competition into the accounting standard-setting process in the U.S. by allowing individual corporations to issue financial reports prepared in accordance with either FASB or IASB rules. The paper examines several arguments supporting the status quo, including (1) the FASB's experience and world leadership in making accounting rules, (2) the increased risk of a "race to the bottom" under regulatory competition, (3) the inability of most users of financial reports to understand the complex technical issues underlying accounting standards, (4) the possibility that IASB's standards will be diluted to gain international acceptance, allowing additional opportunities for earnings management, (5) the risks of the IASB being deadlocked or captured by interests hostile to business, (6) the costs of experimentation in standard-setting, and (7) economies from network externalities. Arguments examined on the other side include how competition will (1) help meet the needs of globalized businesses, (2) increase the likelihood that the accounting standards will be efficient, (3) help protect standard-setters from undue pressure from interest groups, (4) allow different standards to develop for different corporate clienteles, (5) allow corporations to send more informative signals by their choice of accounting standards, (6) protect corporations against capture of regulatory body by narrow interests, and (7) not affect network externalities at national or global scales. Journal of Economic Literature Classification: L51, M4 Keywords: Accounting standards, regulatory competition, international Revised May 10, 2001 *Leonard Spacek Professor of Accounting Information and Management at Northwestern University. ...

This paper develops some important concepts with respect to networks and compatibility. We note that the familiar concept of complementarity lies at the heart of the concept of compatibility. We further note the distinction between two-way networks (e.g., telephones, railroads, the Internet) and one-way networks (e.g., ATMs, television, distribution and service networks). In the former, additional customers usually yield direct externalities to other customers; in the latter the externalities are indirect, through increases in the number of varieties (and lower prices) of components. Most industries involve vertically related components and thus are conceptually similar to one-way networks. Accordingly, our analysis of networks has broad applicability to many industrial frameworks. We proceed by exploring the implications of networks and compatibility for antitrust and regulatory policy in three areas: mergers, joint ventures, and vertical restraints. * Stern School of Business, New ...