. A rapidly growing number of user and student modeling systems have employed numerical techniques for uncertainty management. The three major paradigms are those of Bayesian networks, the Dempster-Shafer theory of evidence, and fuzzy logic. In this overview, each of the first three main sections focuses on one of these paradigms. It first introduces the basic concepts by showing how they can be applied to a relatively simple user modeling problem. It then surveys systems that have applied techniques from the paradigm to user or student modeling, characterizing each system within a common framework. The final main section discusses several aspects of the usability of these techniques for user and student modeling, such as their knowledge engineering requirements, their need for computational resources, and the communicability of their results. Key words: numerical uncertainty management, Bayesian networks, Dempster-Shafer theory, fuzzy logic, user modeling, student modeling 1. Introdu...

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The literature in cognitive psychology has described a variety of shortcomings that prevent individuals from learning effectively. We review this literature and provide examples ofa number oforganizational practices that may effectively repair thecognitive shortcomings of individuals. We call these practices cognitive repairs. We then discuss six tradeoffs that affect the success of cognitive repairs. We close by considering how a cognitive perspective might benefit those who study organizational learning and those who manage it.

The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, importance, attachment and sense of interdependence, social embeddedness, behavioral involvement, and content and meaning. For each element, the authors take note of different labels that have been used to identify what appear to be conceptually equivalent constructs, provide examples of studies that illustrate the concept, and suggest measurement approaches. Further, they discuss the potential links between elements and outcomes and how context moderates these relationships. The authors illustrate the utility of the multidimensional organizing framework by analyzing the different configuration of elements in 4 major theories of identification. In this article we put forward a general conceptual framework for the analysis of collective identity. Although not proposing a theory per se, we offer a strategy by which individual theorists might better articulate the assumptions and the components of their theoretical formulations. In doing so, theorists should be better able to identify points of agreement and dissension between models and to move forward to the development of more integrative theories. It is our belief that by carefully articulating the multiple

This paper outlines the foundation of a definition and measurement for the concept social presence. Justification for such a line of research lies in the ever-increasing use of social presence technologies and expansion of the social interactions across the Internet. A definition of social presence, based upon past literature and theory, describes several levels and dimensions of social presence by which the concept can be operationalized. Specifically, Level 1: co-presence is a necessary but not sufficient requirement for the sense of social presence. Level 2: the Subjective level, attempts to measure the psycho-behavioral accessibility of another interactant. Finally, Level 3: the Intersubjective level, assesses within and cross-interactant symmetry. The purposeful direction of this research and measurement construction is to enable researchers and designers to compare various mediated interactions as well as further theoretical inquiry. 2 1.

Framing is a potentially useful paradigm for examining the strategic creation of public relations messages and audience responses. Based on a literature review across disciplines, this article identifies 7 distinct types of framing applicable to public relations. These involve the framing of situations, attributes, choices, actions, issues, responsibility, and news. Potential applications for public relations practice and research are discussed. Public relations can be examined from a variety of frameworks, including systems, critical, and rhetorical perspectives (Toth, 1992). The rhetorical approach focuses on how public relations is engaged in the construction of messages and meanings that are intended to influence key publics important to an organization. Rhetorical theory encompasses a wide range of approaches, including argumentation, advocacy and persuasion, corporate communication, dialectics and discourse, dramatism and storytelling, information, organizing, public opinion, and reputation management. Yet, none of these approaches represents a comprehensive foundation for fully understanding the processes or consequences of public relations. Another theoretically rich approach that offers the potential of subsuming and tying together many of these seemingly unrelated approaches involves framing theory. Framing has been used as a paradigm for understanding and investigating communication and related behavior in a wide range of disciplines (Rendahl, 1995). These include psychology, speech communication (especially discourse

The area of behavioral decision research, specifically the work on heuristics and biases, has had a tremendous influence on basic research, applied research, and application over the last twenty-five years. Its unique juxtaposition against economics has provided important benefits, but at the cost of leaving it disconnected from too much of psychology. This paper explores an expanded definition of behavioral decision research through the consideration of multiple levels of cognitive processing. Rather than being limited to how decision-makers depart from optimality, we offer a broader analysis of how decision-makers define the decision problem and link decisions to goals, as well as a more detailed focus on processes associated with implementing decisions. Over the past few decades the area of cognitive psychology has grown dramatically, social and developmental psychology have moved strongly in a cognitive direction, and behavioral decision research (BDR) has emerged as a new area of psychology. BDR is unique among psychological subfields in the impact that it has had on research outside of psychology - including its impact on economics, finance, public policy, law, medicine, marketing, organizational behavior, and negotiation. Unfortunately, BDR has also moved further away from many core areas of psychology, limiting its theoretical development and its integration with advances made in allied areas. Our central thesis is that the most well known part of BDR, the heuristics and biases approach, has been overly constrained by a focus on how people make mistakes at the point of decision. Research on heuristics and biases has implicitly assumed that the goal is known and that the details of implementing decisions are not part of the problem. The prescriptive goal is optim...

This article describes recent research on counterfactual reasoning in causal judgment and details implications for future research on consumer and managerial decisions. Two types of counterfactual reasoning may be employed in causal judgment, one of which involves outcome contrasts, and is used to generate possible causal explanations, and the other of which involves antecedent contrasts and is used to test candidate explanations. Prior research on outcome contrasts indicates that people compare instances in which the event occurred to instances in which the event did not occur and base their causal explanations on distinctive features between these two types of occurrences. Explanations may therefore vary as a function of the instances chosen for comparison. Prior research findings suggest that consumers and managers may choose different comparison instances depending on their perspective, culture, and perceived norms. Prior research on antecedent contrasts indicates that people test possible explanations for an event by considering instances in which the candidate factor was absent and asking whether the event would have occurred anyway. Findings suggest, however, that consideration of antecedent contrasts may depend on the type of category on which the explanation is based, with less emphasis on antecedent contrasts for explanations based on categories of objects found in nature (natural kind categories) compared to categories of objects made by humans (artifactual categories). This article proposes the hypothesis that people may perceive some brands and product categories as more like natural

People are often presumed to be vulnerable to a desirability bias, namely, a tendency to be overoptimistic about a future outcome as a result of their preferences or desires for that outcome. In this article, this form of wishful thinking is distinguished from the more general concepts of motivated reasoning and overoptimism, and the evidence for this bias is reviewed. The authors argue that despite the prevalence of the idea that desires bias optimism, the empirical evidence regarding this possibility is limited. The potential for desires to depress rather than enhance optimism is discussed, and the authors advocate for greater research attention to mediators of both types of effects. Nine possible mediational accounts are described, and critical issues for future research on the desirability bias are discussed.

This is a study in the theory and philosophy ofpsychotherapy. The focus is on the psychotherapeutic technique of reframing – a technique for helping clients to see their situation in a new light, from a new perspective. This technique is used in many forms of psychotherapy, especially in most forms of family and brief therapies. In this study an attempt is made to clarify the assumptions and presuppositions involved in the use ofreframing in psychotherapy. This is done through several theoretical perspectives and especially the perspective of frame theory. In order to illustrate the usefulness ofthe presented theoretical positions, examples ofthe use ofthis technique in psychotherapy are explored in the light ofthese theoretical perspectives. Some suggestions are then given on how therapists can improve their ability to use reframing. Finally, some epistemological, ontological and ethical issues involved with the use ofreframing are explored. In the concluding chapter the results ofthis study are summarized and discussed.