Using the Internet to conduct quantitative research presents challenges not found in conventional research. Paper-based survey quality criteria cannot be completely adapted to electronic formats. Electronic surveys have distinctive technological, demographic, and response characteristics that affect their design, use, and implementation. Survey design, participant privacy and confidentiality, sampling and subject solicitation, distribution methods and response rates, and survey piloting are critical methodological components that must be addressed. In this article, quality criteria for electronic survey design and use based on an investigation of recent electronic survey literature are presented. The application of these criteria to reach a hard-to-involve online population—nonpublic participants of online communities (also known as “lurkers”)—and survey them on their community participation, a topic not salient to the purpose of their online communities is demonstrated in a case study. The results show that a hard-to-reach audience can be reached using the quality criteria that are most important for reaching these types of audiences. The results suggest how the use of some criteria may conflict and what researchers may experience when conducting electronic surveys in an online culture in which people are not tolerant of intrusions into online lives.

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Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Filip Lievens,

This chapter concerns the use of the Internet in the research process, from identifying research issues, through using the Web for surveys and clinical trials, to pre-publishing and publishing research results. Although literature searches using databases such as MEDLINE are obviously an important and integral part of every research process,this is considered in Chapter 6.1. Identifying issues for qualitative research As the most comprehensive archive of written material representing our world and people’s opinions, concerns, and desires (in industrialized countries), the Internet can be used to identify ‘issues ’ for qualitative (descriptive) research and to generate hypotheses. Material published on the Internet may be a valuable resource for researchers desiring to understand people and the social and cultural contexts within which they live—outside of experimental settings—with due emphasis on the interpretations, experiences, and views of ‘real world ’ people. Reviews of information posted by consumers on the Internet may help to identify health beliefs, common topics, motives, information, and emotional needs of patients, and point to areas where research is needed. Comparing recommendations found on the Web against evidence-based guidelines is one way to identify areas where there is a gap between opinion and evidence, or where there is a need for clinical innovation. The accessibility of information for analysis and the anonymity of the Internet allow researchers to analyse text and narratives on Web sites, to use newsgroups as global focus groups, and to conduct interviews and surveys via e-mail, chat rooms,Web sites, or newsgroups.Topics suited to qualitative research include: • Analysis of interactive communications (e.g. e-mail). • Study of online communities (virtual self-help groups, newsgroups, mailing lists).McKenzie-06 12/4/01 12:52 PM Page 212

The digital revolution has increased the collection and commercial use of detailed individual data. This paper explores how this phenomenon has affected the evolution of consumer privacy concerns over time. We measure privacy concerns by reluctance to disclose income in an online setting. Using over three million survey responses collected by a marketing research company over eight years, our data show three key patterns: (1) Refusals to reveal information have risen over time, (2) Older people are much less likely to reveal information, and (3) The difference between older and younger people has increased over time. We present suggestive evidence that the overall increase in refusals and the expanding gap between older and younger people is partly due to broadening perceptions of the contexts in which privacy is relevant.