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Event-based prospective memory and executive control of working memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 1998
"... In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding task ..."
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Cited by 64 (15 self)
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In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding tasks from the literature on executive control produced decrements in prospective memory. In Experiment 3, attention was divided by different loads of articulatory suppression that did not ultimately lead to decrements in prospective memory. A high-load manipulation of a visuospatial task requiring performance monitoring resulted in worse prospective memory in Experiment 4, whereas in Experiment 5 a visuospatial task with little monitoring did not. Results are discussed in terms of executive functions, such as planning and monitoring, that appear to be critical to successful event-based prospective memory. Successfully completing an intended action in the future depends on a type of remembering that has been labeled prospective memory. Thus, successful prospective memory requires remembering to remember. As a cognitive con-struct, however, prospective memory is less monolithic than
Activation of completed, uncompleted, and partially completed intentions
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 1998
"... The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl (1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect ..."
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Cited by 60 (9 self)
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The intention-superiority effect is the finding that response latencies are faster for items related to an uncompleted intention as compared with materials that have no associated intentionality. T. Goschke and J. Kuhl (1993) used recognition latency for simple action scripts to document this effect. We used a lexical-decision task to replicate that shorter latencies were associated with uncompleted intentions as compared with neutral materials (Experiments 1 and 3). Experiments 2-4, however, demonstrated that latencies were longer for completed scripts as compared with neutral materials. In Experiment 4, shorter latencies were also obtained for partially completed scripts. The results are discussed in terms of the activation and inhibition that may guide behavior, as well as how these results may inform theories of prospective memory. Prospective memory is a complex form of human memory that functions in service of completing temporarily postponed intentions. Published research reports on the topic are not numerous, but the field is growing (cf. Roediger, 1996). One distinction that is often made in this literature is
A meta-analytic review of prospective memory and aging
- Psychology and Aging
, 2004
"... A meta-analysis of prospective memory (PM) studies revealed that in laboratory settings younger participants outperform older participants on tests of both time- and event-based PM (rs ��.39 and �.34, respectively). Event-based PM tasks that impose higher levels of controlled strategic demand are as ..."
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Cited by 47 (1 self)
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A meta-analysis of prospective memory (PM) studies revealed that in laboratory settings younger participants outperform older participants on tests of both time- and event-based PM (rs ��.39 and �.34, respectively). Event-based PM tasks that impose higher levels of controlled strategic demand are associated with significantly larger age effects than event-based PM tasks that are supported by relatively more automatic processes (rs ��.40 vs. �.14, respectively). However, contrary to the prevailing view in the literature, retrospective memory as measured by free recall is associated with significantly greater age-related decline (r � –.52) than PM, and older participants perform substantially better than their younger counterparts in naturalistic PM studies (rs �.35 and.52 for event- and time-based PM, respectively). Much research on cognitive aging has focused on retrospective memory, or recollection of past events (for a review, see Light, 1991), and almost invariably it has been reported that substantial deficits in this aspect of cognition are associated with normal aging. However, interest has increasingly shifted to investigating prospective memory (PM), that is, memory for future intentions. Relative to retrospective memory, PM is believed to be more dependent on internal control mechanisms (Craik, 1983, 1986). This is because, according to Craik’s (1986) theoretical model, the act of recollection is dependent on reconstructing events in memory, and it is suggested that this process must be guided either by external cues, or in their absence, self-initiated cues. In retrospective memory tasks explicit prompts to recall are provided by the experimenter, whereas in PM tasks the cue is not an explicit request for action, but instead it requires either interpretation of a cue or an internal impetus. It has often been argued that this requirement for self-initiated remembering means that PM tasks should be more susceptible to the effects of adult aging than retrospective memory tasks (e.g., Craik, 1986; Maylor, 1995;
Interference to ongoing activities covaries with the characteristics of an event-based intention
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2003
"... Previous studies of event-based prospective memory have demonstrated that the character of an ongoing task can affect cue detection. By contrast, this study demonstrated that there is a reciprocal relationship insofar as cue-verification and response-retrieval processes interfered with making a resp ..."
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Cited by 30 (9 self)
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Previous studies of event-based prospective memory have demonstrated that the character of an ongoing task can affect cue detection. By contrast, this study demonstrated that there is a reciprocal relationship insofar as cue-verification and response-retrieval processes interfered with making a response in the ongoing task. The amount of interference was determined by the type of intention, which was manip-ulated to affect the complexity of verification and retrospective response retrieval. These relationships were true even when the interference caused by cue detection was separated from a more general effect to ongoing-task performance caused by shifts in attentional allocation policies. The results have theoretical implications for models that attempt to specify the cognitive microstructure of event-based prospective memory. People fulfill a variety of intentions in the course of everyday life. Some examples of different types of prospective-memory tasks include remembering to make a phone call after a certain duration has elapsed (a time-based task), performing an activity right after finishing a different one (an activity-based task), deliv-ering a message to an acquaintance (an event-based task), attend-ing a seminar on changes in health benefits (a novel task), taking vitamins or medication (a habitual intention), and so forth (Bran-dimonte, Einstein, & McDaniel, 1996). The particular cuing con-ditions associated with these different intentions vary along many dimensions, such as the amount of self-initiated processing that is
The dynamics of intention retrieval and coordination of action in event-based prospective memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2002
"... Event-based prospective memory requires responding to cues in the environment that are associated with a previously established intention. Some researchers believe that intentions reside in memory with an above baseline level of activation, a phenomenon called the intention superiority effect. The a ..."
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Cited by 30 (14 self)
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Event-based prospective memory requires responding to cues in the environment that are associated with a previously established intention. Some researchers believe that intentions reside in memory with an above baseline level of activation, a phenomenon called the intention superiority effect. The authors of this study predicted that intention superiority would be masked by additional cognitive processes associated with successful event-based prospective memory. These additional processes include noticing the cue, retrieving the intention, and coordinating intention execution with the ongoing activity. In 3 experiments, intention superiority was demonstrated by faster latencies to the ongoing activity on failed prospective trials and the existence of the additional processes was demonstrated by slower latencies on successful trials. This study demonstrates the importance of investigating the microstructure of the cognitive components involved with processing and responding to an event-based prospective memory cue. In the course of everyday life people often encounter cues in their environment that cause them to recollect events that occurred in the past. For example, a sheaf of papers collected at a conference may evoke memories of a recent trip, or the sight of a
Shopping lists as an external memory aid for grocery shopping: Influences on List writing and List fulfillment
- Journal of Consumer Psychology
, 1999
"... We explore the use of shopping lists as an external memory aid to consumers ’ grocery shopping by examining the factors that influence the content ofconsumers ’ shopping lists and the effectiveness of shopping lists as external memory aids. We analyze the shopping lists and actual purchase behavior ..."
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Cited by 25 (0 self)
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We explore the use of shopping lists as an external memory aid to consumers ’ grocery shopping by examining the factors that influence the content ofconsumers ’ shopping lists and the effectiveness of shopping lists as external memory aids. We analyze the shopping lists and actual purchase behavior of a panel of consumers during multiple grocery shopping trips conducted over a 2-month period. Our results indicate that consumers record on their lists approximately 40 % of the items they ultimately purchase. Consistent with the external memory literature, we find that consumers write items on their shopping lists for which there are financial incentives to remember (eg, manufacturers ’ coupons), need-based incentives to remember (e.g., the product is frequently used), and schema-based advantages to remember (e.g,, items purchased on fill-in trips). More than 80 % of the items written on the shopping list were actually purchased. Thus, shopping lists appear to be an effective external memory storage device for grocery purchasing. We discuss these and other findings in relation to the literatures on external memory and planned versus unplanned purchasing. Consider the following two grocery shopping scenarios. hie is about to embark on a trip to his local supermarket to pick up several items his family needs for dinner that evening. Before he leaves for the store, Amie’s wife gives him a shopping list of the items she would like him to purchase: lettuce, tomatoes, cheese, milk, and Coca-Cola. When Arnie arrives at the store, he purchases the lettuce, tomatoes, and milk. He decides to purchase Pepsi Cola instead of Coca-Cola because the store is
Voluntary task switching: Chasing the elusive homunculus
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2005
"... In the voluntary task switching procedure, subjects choose the task to perform on a series of bivalent stimuli, requiring top-down control of task switching. Experiments 1–3 contrasted voluntary task switching and explicit task cuing. Choice behavior showed small, inconsistent effects of external st ..."
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Cited by 25 (4 self)
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In the voluntary task switching procedure, subjects choose the task to perform on a series of bivalent stimuli, requiring top-down control of task switching. Experiments 1–3 contrasted voluntary task switching and explicit task cuing. Choice behavior showed small, inconsistent effects of external stimulus characteristics, supporting the assumption of top-down control of task choice. Switch costs were smaller when subjects chose to switch tasks than when instructed by an external cue. Experiments 4–6 separated choice costs from switch costs. These findings support models of task switching that incorporate top-down processes in accounts of switch costs. The degree to which task switching procedures capture top-down versus bottom-up processes may depend on the extent of environmental support provided by the procedure.
Handbook of experimental psychology
, 1951
"... The primary interest of this investigation concerned working memory functioning and cue/act discrimination during encoding of intentions. The study included manipulations of working memory and intention load to investigate the encoding processes related to prospective memory (PM). Three experiments ..."
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Cited by 23 (0 self)
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The primary interest of this investigation concerned working memory functioning and cue/act discrimination during encoding of intentions. The study included manipulations of working memory and intention load to investigate the encoding processes related to prospective memory (PM). Three experiments are presented that involve working memory distraction tasks at the time of encoding the PM intentions, as well as varying numbers of cues and actions. In the first experiment three cues were paired with one action, in the second, one cue with three actions, and in the third, three cues with three actions. Results suggest that the central executive is involved in binding a cue to an action, and that this operation is key to PM success. Furthermore, the phonological loop seems primarily involved with processing of cues and the visuospatial sketchpad with actions. It is further proposed that the processes of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad must be successful before the central executive can bind the cues and acts together, which is possibly the most important part in the encoding of intentions. By directly examining PM at the time of encoding, information was gained that allows for a more complete understanding of the nature of how we form and execute intentions.
The adaptive and strategic use of memory by older adults: Evaluative processing and value-directed remembering
- In
, 2007
"... Why do we remember some events and not others, and how does this change in old age? Although there are a variety of ways to address this question, the present perspective emphasizes how value can have a profound eVect on how we use our memory to remember certain information. The ability to select an ..."
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Cited by 16 (8 self)
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Why do we remember some events and not others, and how does this change in old age? Although there are a variety of ways to address this question, the present perspective emphasizes how value can have a profound eVect on how we use our memory to remember certain information. The ability to select and prioritize what information is important to remember, relative to less salient or peripheral information, is an essential skill for the eYcient use of memory. For example, university students seek to memorize information they think is important for a later test, while grandparents may focus on being able to remember information about children and grandchildren, as well as important life events. In both cases, value is used to direct resources toward information that is deemed to be important to remember. The role that value plays in memory performance is critical to develop a comprehensive understanding of how memory is used across the adult life span. The present summary focuses on how older adults use evaluative processing (a critical process that will be defined and discussed throughout this chapter) to guide encoding and retrieval operations, and how older adults then use value to make decisions about what information is important to remember. In light of the many memory impairments that typically
Prospective memory functioning in people with and without brain injury
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society
, 2002
"... Prospective remembering has been relatively underinvestigated in neurological patients. This paper describes a group study in which the prospective memory performance of 36 people with brain injury and 28 control participants is compared. We used a new instrument, the Cambridge Behaviour Prospective ..."
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Cited by 12 (1 self)
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Prospective remembering has been relatively underinvestigated in neurological patients. This paper describes a group study in which the prospective memory performance of 36 people with brain injury and 28 control participants is compared. We used a new instrument, the Cambridge Behaviour Prospective Memory Test (CBPMT) to assess prospective memory. This comprises 4 time-based and 4 event-based tasks. Participants were allowed to take notes to help them remember the tasks. The relationships between CBPMT scores, scores on formal tests and subjective reports on memory, attention and executive functioning were analyzed. The key findings were that (1) note-taking significantly benefited prospective memory performance, (2) significant relationships were found between scores on the prospective memory test and scores on tests of memory and executive functions, and (3) participants had more difficulty with the time-based than with the event-based prospective memory tasks. The results suggest that compensatory strategies improve prospective memory functioning; memory for content as well as attention and executive functioning processes are involved in prospective memory; and that time-based tasks are more difficult than event-based tasks because they place higher demands on inhibitory control mechanisms. Discussion focuses on the implications of these results for neuropsychological assessment and rehabilitation.
