An attempt is made to apply information-theoretic computational complexity to metamathematics. The paper studies the number of bits of instructions that must be a given to a computer for it to perform finite and infinite tasks, and also the amount of time that it takes the computer to perform these tasks. This is applied to measuring the difficulty of proving a given set of theorems, in terms of the number of bits of axioms that are assumed, and the size of the proofs needed to deduce the theorems from the axioms. 2 G. J. Chaitin Key Words and Phrases: complexity of sets, computational complexity, difficulty of theoremproving, entropy of sets, formal systems, Godel's incompleteness theorem, halting problem, information content of sets, information content of axioms, information theory, information time trade-offs, metamathematics, random strings, recursive functions, recursively enumerable sets, size of proofs, universal computers CR Categories: 5.21, 5.25, 5.27, 5.6 1. Introduct...

Contents 1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2 2 The expressive power of second order Logic : : : : : : : : : : : 3 2.1 The language of second order logic : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3 2.2 Expressing size : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4 2.3 Defining data types : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6 2.4 Describing processes : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8 2.5 Expressing convergence using second order validity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9 2.6 Truth definitions: the analytical hierarchy : : : : : : : : 10 2.7 Inductive definitions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13 3 Canonical semantics of higher order logic : : : : : : : : : : : : 15 3.1 Tarskian semantics of second order logic : : : : : : : : : 15 3.2 Function and re

We present a foundation for a computational meta-theory of languages with bindings implemented in a computer-aided formal reasoning environment. Our theory provides the ability to reason abstractly about operators, languages, open-ended languages, classes of languages, etc. The theory is based on the ideas of higher-order abstract syntax, with an appropriate induction principle parameterized over the language (i.e. a set of operators) being used. In our approach, both the bound and free variables are treated uniformly and this uniform treatment extends naturally to variable-length bindings. The implementation is reflective, namely there is a natural mapping between the meta-language of the theorem-prover and the object language of our theory. The object language substitution operation is mapped to the meta-language substitution and does not need to be defined recursively. Our approach does not require designing a custom type theory; in this paper we describe the implementation of this foundational theory within a general-purpose type theory. This work is fully implemented in the MetaPRL theorem prover, using the pre-existing NuPRL-like MartinL of-style computational type theory. Based on this implementation, we lay out an outline for a framework for programming language experimentation and exploration as well as a general reflective reasoning framework. This paper also includes a short survey of the existing approaches to syntactic reflection. 1

This paper discusses lower bounds for proof length, especially as measured by number of steps (inferences). We give the first publicly known proof of Gödel's claim that there is superrecursive (in fact, unbounded) proof speedup of (i + 1)-st order arithmetic over i-th order arithmetic, where arithmetic is formalized in Hilbert-style calculi with + and as function symbols or with the language of PRA. The same results are established for any weakly schematic formalization of higher-order logic; this allows all tautologies as axioms and allows all generalizations of axioms as axioms.

Solovay and Strassen, and Miller and Rabin have discovered fast algorithms for testing primality which use coin-flipping and whose con1 2 G. J. Chaitin clusions are only probably correct. On the other hand, algorithmic information theory provides a precise mathematical definition of the notion of random or patternless sequence. In this paper we shall describe conditions under which if the sequence of coin tosses in the Solovay-- Strassen and Miller--Rabin algorithms is replaced by a sequence of heads and tails that is of maximal algorithmic information content, i.e., has maximal algorithmic randomness, then one obtains an error-free test for primality. These results are only of theoretical interest, since it is a manifestation of the Godel incompleteness phenomenon that it is impossible to "certify" a sequence to be random by means of a proof, even though most sequences have this property. Thus by using certified random sequences one can in principle, but not in practice, convert proba...

Gödel's legacy is still very much in evidence. His legacy is overwhelmingly decisive, particularly in the arena of general mathematical and philosophical inquiry. The extent of Gödel's impact in the more restricted domain of mathematical practice is more open to question. In fact, there is an in depth assessment of this impact in Macintyre 2009. But even in this comparatively specialized domain, Gödel's impact is seen to be substantial. As indicated here, particularly in section 12, we believe that the potential impact of Gödel's work 2 on mathematical practice is also overwhelming. However, the full realization of this potential impact will have to wait for some new breakthroughs. We have every confidence that these breakthroughs will materialize. Generally speaking, current mathematical practice has now become very far removed from general mathematical and philosophical inquiry, where Gödel's legacy is most decisively overwhelming. However, there are some signs that some of our most distinguished mathematicians recognize the need for some sort of reconciliation. Here is a quote from Atiyah M. 2008b: "Mathematicians took the role of philosophers, but I want to bring the philosophers back in. I hope someday we will be able to explain mathematics in a philosophical way using philosophical methods". We will not attempt to properly discuss the full impact of Gödel's work and all of the ongoing important research programs that it suggests. This would require a book length manuscript. Indeed, there are several books discussing the Gödel legacy from many points of view, including, for example, (Wang 1987, 1996), (Dawson 2005), and the historically comprehensive five volume set (Gödel

several historical points. 1. GENERAL REMARKS Gödel's legacy is still very much in evidence. His legacy is overwhelmingly decisive, particularly in the arena of general mathematical and2 philosophical inquiry. The extent of Gödel's impact in the more restricted domain of mathematical practice is more open to question. In fact, there is an in depth assessment of this impact in Macintyre 2009. But even in this comparatively specialized domain, Gödel's impact is seen to be substantial. As indicated here, particularly in section 12, we believe that the potential impact of Gödel's work on mathematical practice is also overwhelming. However, the full realization of this potential impact will have to wait for some new breakthroughs. We have every confidence that these breakthroughs will materialize. Generally speaking, current mathematical practice has now become very far removed from general mathematical and philosophical inquiry, where Gödel's legacy is most decisively overwhelming. However, there are some signs that some of our most distinguished mathematicians recognize the need for some sort of reconciliation. Here is a quote from Atiyah M. 2008b: "Mathematicians took the role of philosophers, but I want to bring the philosophers back in. I hope someday we will be able to explain mathematics in a philosophical way using philosophical methods".3 We will not attempt to properly discuss the full impact of Gödel's work and all of the ongoing important research programs that it suggests. This would require a book length manuscript. Indeed, there are several books discussing the Gödel legacy from many points of view, including, for example, (Wang 1987, 1996), (Dawson 2005), and the historically comprehensive five volume set (Gödel