In this paper the problem of lack of theory and directing constructs for re#ective practice in teacher education is addressed. Selected theoretical tenets of Vygotsky and Piaget are reviewed and related to a developmental action /re#ection framework for the adult learner. As well, a taxonomy for di!erentiating re#ection according to the needs of the adult learner is summarized. The taxonomy served as the treatment in seven quasi-experimental studies. Results of a quantitative synthesis of the studies are summarized with implications for cognitive-developmental theory, the moral dimensions of schooling and teacher education, and emerging constructs of re#ective practice. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

The cognitive and neurosciences have made great strides in uncovering the nature of human psychobiology in recent years. Moral educators have yet to make much of their findings. The theories presented here capitalize on recent research that has implications for building moral personalities and cultivating morally adept citizens. The two theories presented in brief are the Integrative Ethical Education model, intended for educators of all levels, and Triune Ethics Theory, a more comprehensive theory of moral development that has implications for moral education. Approaches to education for moral character are typically divided into two opposing views which are rooted in different philosophical paradigms (Lapsley & Narvaez, 2006; Narvaez, 2006). One philosophical paradigm represents particularist claims regarding virtue with a focus on the agent and the deliberate cultivation of virtues or excellences (MacIntyre, 1981). Of primary concern is the nature of a good life and the characteristics necessary to live a good life (e.g., Anscombe, 1958; Hursthouse, 1999; McDowell, 1997). The individual takes on the responsibility for discovering the virtues and values inherent in the self, and cultivates them with the support of the community (Urmson, 1988). Moreover, nearly everything in a life has moral meaning, from friend selection to leisure activities. Traditional character education emerges from

Recommendations for values education must be rooted in empirically-derived understandings of humanity. Taking its cue from moral philosophy and from the phenomenology of human experience, moral psychology historically has studied and emphasized reasoning and the conscious mind. The human is perceived as a rational creature who can learn to control baser instincts through the development of reason. Following this view, rational moral education (a la Kohlberg) emphasized moral reasoning as the foundation of moral development and behavior. More recently, psychological science has shown that human decision making is largely driven by unconscious systems and that most behaviors are the result of automatic, nondeliberative processing, sometimes called intuition. The ancient Greeks called this automatic responsiveness “virtue ” and argued for its cultivation through the coached guidance of mentors and selection of environments. Both rational moral education and virtue education are supported by what we know leads to expertise. Both reasoning and intuition are necessary for moral behavior. Despite the fact that it may rarely be in full control, the deliberative mind is able to guide the cultivation of intuition or virtue and to counter immoral instinctual reactions, as in “free won’t”. I discuss how to cultivate citizens with good character through the coordinated education of both moral intuition and moral reasoning. Values education involves cultivating an individual’s positive potential to the fullest within a supportive community in which values are expressed. Historically, not much of values education theory has been rooted in the neuro- and psychological sciences. Kohlberg’s enterprise was rooted in philosophy (Kohlberg 1981), Piaget’s in non-human biology (1932), Gilligan’s in psychoanalytic theory (Gilligan 1982), Shweder’s in cultural anthropology (Shweder 1993). Yet a prescription for moral or values education requires an up-to-date and frank assessment of human nature, needs, and possibilities (Flanagan 1991; MacKinnon 1999). Like a chef, educators need to think about the nature of the ingredients with

ABSTRACT. Moral text processing was used as an ecologically valid method for assessing implicit and explicit moral understanding and development. The authors tested undergraduates, seminarians, and graduate students in political science and philosophy for recall of moral narratives and moral expository texts. Multivariate analyses of covariance using educational experience as an independent variable, age and moral judgment score as covariates, and recall of embedded moral arguments as dependent variables revealed a relation between education and level of moral arguments recalled. Lower-stage moral reasoning was best recalled by undergraduates, whereas higher-stage reasoning was best recalled by graduate students, with seminarians intermediate for both types of text. Moral judgment score was related to recall of the highest-level moral arguments even when age and educational experience were controlled. Moral judgment development appeared to be particularly helpful in recall of expository compared with narrative texts.

Introduction to the

Recently, intuitionist theories have been effective in capturing the academic discourse about morality. Intuitionist theories, like rationalist theories, offer important but only partial understanding of moral functioning. Both can be fallacious and succumb to truthiness: the attachment to one’s opinions because they “feel right, ” potentially leading to harmful action or inaction. Both intuition and reasoning are involved in deliberation and expertise. Both are malleable from environmental and educational influence, making questions of normativity— which intuitions and reasoning skills foster—of utmost importance. Good intuition and reasoning inform mature moral functioning, which needs to include capacities that promote sustainable human well-being. Individual capacities for habituated empathic concern and moralMoral Complexity 2 metacognition—moral locus of control, moral self-regulation, and moral self-reflection— comprise mature moral functioning, which also requires collective capacities for moral dialogue and moral institutions. These capacities underlie moral innovation and are necessary for solving the complex challenges humanity faces.