Abstract. We study congruences on words in order to characterize the class of visibly pushdown languages (Vpl), a subclass of context-free languages. For any language L, we define a natural congruence on words that resembles the syntactic congruence for regular languages, such that this congruence is of finite index if, and only if, L is a Vpl. We then study the problem of finding canonical minimal deterministic automata for Vpls. Though Vpls in general do not have unique minimal automata, we consider a subclass of VPAs called k-module single-entry VPAs that correspond to programs with recursive procedures without input parameters, and show that the class of well-matched Vpls do indeed have unique minimal k-module single-entry automata. We also give a polynomial time algorithm that minimizes such k-module single-entry VPAs. 1 Introduction The class of visibly pushdown languages (Vpl), introduced in [1], is a subclassof context-free languages accepted by pushdown automata in which the input letter determines the type of operation permitted on the stack. Visibly push-down languages are closed under all boolean operations, and problems such as inclusion, that are undecidable for context-free languages, are decidable for Vpl. Vpls are relevant to several applications that use context-free languages suchas the model-checking of software programs using their pushdown models [1-3]. Recent work has shown applications in other contexts: in modeling semanticsof effects in processing XML streams [4], in game semantics for programming languages [5], and in identifying larger classes of pushdown specifications thatadmit decidable problems for infinite games on pushdown graphs [6].

We consider two-player games played for an infinite number of rounds, with ω-regular winning conditions. The games may be concurrent, in that the players choose their moves simultaneously and independently, and probabilistic, in that the moves determine a probability distribution for the successor state. We introduce quantitative game µ-calculus, and we show that the maximal probability of winning such games can be expressed as the fixpoint formulas in this calculus. We develop the arguments both for deterministic and for probabilistic concurrent games; as a special case, we solve probabilistic turn-based games with ω-regular winning conditions, which was also open. We also characterize the optimality, and the memory requirements, of the winning strategies. In particular, we show that while memoryless strategies suffice for winning games with safety and reachability conditions, Büchi conditions require the use of strategies with infinite memory. The existence of optimal strategies, as opposed to ε-optimal, is only guaranteed in games with safety winning conditions.

Determinization and complementation are fundamental notions in computer science. When considering finite automata on finite words determinization gives also a solution to complementation. Given a nondeterministic finite automaton there exists an exponential construction that gives a deterministic automaton for the same language. Dualizing the set of accepting states gives an automaton for the complement language. In the theory of automata on infinite words, determinization and complementation are much more involved. Safra provides determinization constructions for Büchi and Streett automata that result in deterministic Rabin automata. For a Büchi automaton with n states, Safra constructs a deterministic Rabin automaton with n O(n) states and n pairs. For a Streett automaton with n states and k pairs, Safra constructs a deterministic Rabin automaton with (nk) O(nk) states and n(k + 1) pairs. Here, we reconsider Safra’s determinization constructions. We show how to construct automata with fewer states and, most importantly, parity acceptance condition. Specifically, starting from a nondeterministic Büchi automaton with n states our construction yields a deterministic parity automaton with n 2n+2 states and index 2n (instead of a Rabin automaton with (12) n n 2n states and n pairs). Starting from a nondeterministic Streett automaton with n states and k pairs our construction yields a deterministic parity automaton with n n(k+2)+2 (k+1) 2n(k+1) states and index 2n(k + 1) (instead of a Rabin automaton with (12) n(k+1) n n(k+2) (k+1) 2n(k+1) states and n(k+1) pairs). The parity condition is much simpler than the Rabin condition. In applications such as solving games and emptiness of tree automata handling the Rabin condition involves an additional multiplier of n 2 n! (or (n(k + 1)) 2 (n(k + 1))! in the case of Streett) which is saved using our construction.

Abstract — We present an approach to automatic synthesis of specifications given in Linear Time Logic. The approach is based on a translation through universal co-Büchi tree automata and alternating weak tree automata [1]. By careful optimization of all intermediate automata, we achieve a major improvement in performance. We present several optimization techniques for alternating tree automata, including a game-based approximation to language emptiness and a simulation-based optimization. Furthermore, we use an incremental algorithm to compute the emptiness of nondeterministic Büchi tree automata. All our optimizations are computed in time polynomial in the size of the automaton on which they are computed. We have applied our implementation to several examples and show a significant improvement over the straightforward implementation. Although our examples are still small, this work constitutes the first implementation of a synthesis algorithm for full LTL. We believe that the optimizations discussed here form an important step towards making LTL synthesis practical. I.

Dynamic programs, or fixpoint iteration schemes, are useful for solving many problems on state spaces, including model checking on Kripke structures ("verification"), computing shortest paths on weighted graphs ("optimization"), computing the value of games played on game graphs ("control"). For Kripke structures, a rich fixpoint theory is available in the form of the -calculus. Yet few connections have been made between different interpretations of fixpoint algorithms. We study the question of when a particular fixpoint iteration scheme ' for verifying an !-regular property on a Kripke structure can be used also for solving a two-player game on a game graph with winning objective. We provide a sufficient and necessary criterion for the answer to be a rmative in the form of an extremal-model theorem for games: under a game interpretation, the dynamic program' solves the game with objective if and only if both (1) under an existential interpretation on Kripke structures,' is equivalent to 9, and (2) under a universal interpretation on Kripke structures,' is equivalent to 8. In other words,' is correct on all two-player game graphs i it is correct on all extremal game graphs, where one or the other player has no choice of moves. The theorem generalizes to quantitative interpretations, where it connects two-player games with costs to weighted graphs. While the standard translations from !-regular properties to the-calculus violate (1) or (2), we give a translation that satisfies both conditions. Our construction, therefore, yields fixpoint iteration schemes that can be uniformly applied on Kripke structures, weighted graphs, game graphs, and game graphs with costs, in order to meet or optimize a given !-regular objective.

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Several optimal algorithms have been proposed for the complementation of nondeterministic B uchi word automata. Due to the intricacy of the problem and the exponential blow-up that complementation involves, these algorithms have never been used in practice, even though an effective complementation construction would be of significant practical value. Recently, Kupferman and Vardi described a complementation algorithm that goes through weak alternating automata and that seems simpler than previous algorithms. We combine their algorithm with known and new minimization techniques. Our approach is based on optimizations of both the intermediate weak alternating automaton and the final nondeterministic automaton, and involves techniques of rank and height reductions, as well as direct and fair simulation.

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The two determinization procedures of Safra and Muller-Schupp for Büchi automata are compared, based on an implementation in a program called OmegaDet.

Vol. 4 (4:10) 2008, pp. 1–43 www.lmcs-online.org